31 Nuclear JJ power NN station NN at IN Leibstadt NNP , , Switzerland NNP A DT nuclear JJ reactor NN is VBZ an DT apparatus NN in IN which WDT nuclear JJ fission NN chain NN reactions NNS are VBP initiated VBN , , controlled VBN , , and CC sustained VBD at IN a DT steady JJ rate NN . .
19 Nuclear NNP reactors NNS provide VBP heat NN for IN electricity NN generation NN , , domestic JJ and CC industrial JJ heating NN , , desalination NN , , and CC naval JJ propulsion NN . .
18 They PRP also RB have VBP many JJ research NN applications NNS including VBG providing VBG a DT source NN of IN neutrons NNS and CC creating VBG various JJ radioactive JJ isotopes NNS . .
26 Although IN the DT term NN ' ' nuclear JJ reactor NN ' ' could MD also RB refer VB to TO a DT nuclear JJ fusion NN reactor NN , , the DT term NN normally RB refers VBZ only RB to TO nuclear JJ fission NN devices NNS . .
27 Nuclear JJ power NN can MD also RB be VB generated VBN in IN a DT radioisotope NN thermoelectric JJ generator NN , , which WDT produces VBZ heat NN through IN subcritical JJ radioactive JJ decay NN rather RB than IN fission NN in IN a DT near-critical JJ mass NN . .
18 These DT generators NNS have VBP been VBN used VBN to TO power VB space NN probes NNS and CC some DT lighthouses NNS built VBN by IN the DT Soviet NNP Union NNP . .
13 1 CD Basic NNP science NN 2 CD Reactor NNP Design NNP 2.1 CD Fuel NN 3 CD Types NNS of IN reactors NNS 3.1 CD
24 Current JJ families NNS of IN reactors NNS 3.2 CD Obsolete JJ types NNS still RB in IN service NN 3.3 CD Advanced NNP reactors NNPS 4 CD Nuclear JJ fuel NN cycle NN 5 CD History IN 6 CD Benefits NNS and CC disadvantages NNS 6.1 CD
40 Environmental JJ concerns NNS 6.2 CD Economic JJ barriers NNS 6.3 CD Nuclear NNP proliferation NN 6.4 CD Statistics NNPS 7 CD Natural JJ nuclear JJ reactors NNS 8 CD List NNP of IN atomic JJ energy NN groups NNS 9 CD Related JJ articles NNS 10 CD See VBP also RB 11 CD References NNS and CC links NNS Basic NNP science NN All DT nuclear JJ reactors NNS produce VBP heat NN through IN fission NN . .
18 In IN this DT process NN , , the DT nucleus JJ of IN an DT element NN such JJ as IN uranium NN splits VBZ into IN two CD smaller JJR atoms NNS . .
23 This DT occurs VBZ naturally RB in IN radioactive JJ elements NNS , , but CC it PRP can MD be VB induced VBN artificially RB by IN making VBG some DT atoms NNS absorb VBP a DT slow-moving JJ free JJ neutron NN . .
15 This DT causes VBZ the DT nucleus JJ to TO become VB unstable JJ and CC makes VBZ it PRP split VBD apart RB very RB quickly RB . .
22 The DT fission NN process NN for IN a DT uranium NN atom IN yields NNS two CD smaller JJR atoms NNS , , one CD to TO three CD fast-moving JJ free JJ neutrons NNS , , and CC energy NN . .
9 Uranium NNP fission NN releases NNS more RBR neutrons NNS than IN it PRP requires VBZ . .
9 Therefore RB , , the DT reaction NN can MD become VB self PRP sustaining VBG . .
7 This DT is VBZ called VBN a DT chain NN reaction NN . .
23 The DT newly RB released VBN fast JJ neutrons NNS must MD be VB slowed VBN down RP -LRB- -LRB- moderated JJ -RRB- -RRB- before IN they PRP can MD be VB absorbed VBN by IN the DT next JJ fuel NN atom NN . .
21 This DT slowing VBG down RP process NN is VBZ caused VBN by IN collisions NNS of IN the DT neutrons NNS with IN atoms NNS of IN an DT introduced VBN substance NN called VBN a DT moderator NN . .
52 Reactor NNP Design NNP In IN the DT vast JJ majority NN of IN the DT world NN ' ' s POS nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS , , heat NN energy NN generated VBN by IN fissioning VBG uranium NN fuel NN is VBZ collected VBN in IN purified JJ water NN and CC is VBZ carried VBN away RB from IN the DT reactor NN ' ' s POS core NN either CC as IN steam NN in IN boiling NN water NN reactors NNS or CC as IN superheated JJ water NN in IN pressurized-water NN reactors NNS . .
30 In IN a DT pressurized-water NN reactor NN , , the DT high JJ temperature NN water NN in IN the DT primary JJ cooling NN loop VBP is VBZ used VBN to TO transfer VB heat NN energy NN to TO a DT secondary JJ loop NN for IN the DT creation NN of IN steam NN . .
35 In IN either CC a DT boiling-water NN or CC pressurized-water NN installation NN , , steam NN under IN high JJ pressure NN is VBZ the DT medium NN used VBN to TO transfer VB the DT nuclear JJ reactor NN ' ' s POS heat NN energy NN to TO a DT turbine NN that IN mechanically RB turns VBZ an DT electric JJ generator NN . .
18 Boiling-water NNP and CC pressurized-water NN reactors NNS are VBP called VBN light-water JJ reactors NNS , , because IN they PRP utilize VBP ordinary JJ water NN as IN the DT moderator NN . .
26 In IN all DT light-water NN reactors NNS to TO date NN this DT water NN is VBZ also RB used VBN to TO transfer VB the DT heat NN energy NN from IN reactor NN to TO turbine VB in IN the DT electricity NN generation NN process NN . .
25 In IN other JJ reactor NN designs NNS the DT heat NN energy NN may MD be VB transferred VBN by IN light JJ water NN , , pressurized VBN heavy JJ water NN , , helium NN , , or CC another DT cooling NN substance NN . .
49 Fuel NN The DT amount NN of IN energy NN in IN the DT reservoir NN of IN nuclear JJ fuel NN is VBZ frequently RB expressed VBN in IN terms NNS of IN '' '' full-power JJ days NNS , , '' '' which WDT is VBZ the DT number NN of IN 24-hour JJ periods NNS -LRB- -LRB- days NNS -RRB- -RRB- a DT reactor NN is VBZ scheduled VBN for IN operation NN at IN full JJ power NN output NN for IN the DT generation NN of IN heat NN energy NN . .
42 The DT number NN of IN full JJ power NN days NNS in IN a DT reactor NN ' ' s POS operating VBG cycle NN -LRB- -LRB- between IN refueling NN outage NN times NNS -RRB- -RRB- is VBZ related VBN to TO the DT amount NN of IN fissile JJ uranium-235 CD -LRB- -LRB- U-235 IN -RRB- -RRB- contained VBN in IN the DT fuel NN assemblies NNS at IN the DT beginning NN of IN the DT cycle NN . .
30 A DT higher JJR percentage NN of IN U-235 NNP in IN the DT core NN at IN the DT beginning NN of IN a DT cycle NN will MD permit VB the DT reactor NN to TO be VB run VBN for IN a DT greater JJR number NN of IN full JJ power NN days NNS . .
34 At IN the DT end NN of IN the DT operating VBG cycle NN , , the DT fuel NN in IN some DT of IN the DT assemblies NNS is VBZ '' '' spent VBN , , '' '' and CC it PRP is VBZ discharged VBN and CC replaced VBD with IN new JJ -LRB- -LRB- fresh JJ -RRB- -RRB- fuel NN assemblies NNS . .
26 The DT fraction NN of IN the DT reactor NN ' ' s POS fuel NN core NN replaced VBD during IN refueling NN is VBZ typically RB one-fourth JJ for IN a DT boiling-water NN reactor NN and CC one-third NN for IN a DT pressurized-water NN reactor NN . .
33 The DT amount NN of IN energy NN extracted VBN from IN nuclear JJ fuel NN is VBZ called VBN its PRP$ '' '' burn VBP up RP , , '' '' which WDT is VBZ expressed VBN in IN terms NNS of IN the DT heat NN energy NN produced VBD per IN initial JJ unit NN of IN fuel NN weight NN . .
17 Burn NNP up RB is VBZ commonly RB expressed VBN as IN megawatt NN days NNS thermal , per IN metric JJ ton NN of IN initial JJ heavy JJ metal NN . .
12 Types NNS of IN reactors NNS A DT number NN of IN reactor NN technologies NNS have VBP been VBN developed VBN . .
8 There EX are VBP two CD basic JJ types NNS of IN reactors NNS . .
10 They PRP use VBP different JJ speeds NNS of IN neutrons NNS in IN the DT reactor NN . .
9 Thermal JJ -LRB- -LRB- slow JJ -RRB- -RRB- reactors NNS use VBP slow JJ neutrons NNS . .
7 Most JJS power NN reactors NNS are VBP this DT type NN . .
19 They PRP have VBP moderating JJ materials NNS to TO slow VB neutrons NNS to TO low JJ velocities NNS to TO prevent VB capture NN of IN the DT neutrons NNS by IN U-238 CD . .
28 They PRP also RB have VBP fuel NN -LRB- -LRB- fissionable JJ material NN -RRB- -RRB- , , containments NNS , , pressure NN vessels NNS , , shielding VBG , , and CC instrumentation NN to TO monitor VB and CC control VB the DT reactor NN ' ' s POS systems NNS . .
14 The DT first JJ plutonium NN production NN reactors NNS were VBD thermal JJ reactors NNS using VBG graphite NN as IN the DT moderator NN . .
6 Fast NN reactors NNS use VBP fast JJ neutrons NNS . .
15 They PRP require VBP highly RB enriched JJ fuel NN -LRB- -LRB- sometimes RB weapons-grade NN -RRB- -RRB- , , but CC no DT moderating JJ material NN . .
17 The DT fuel NN is VBZ purified VBN so RB that IN it PRP lacks VBZ the DT U-238 JJ that WDT would MD otherwise RB capture VB fast JJ neutrons NNS . .
32 This DT type NN of IN reactor NN is VBZ used VBN in IN mobile JJ applications NNS , , where WRB space NN constraints NNS are VBP a DT major JJ concern NN , , as RB well RB as IN for IN the DT production NN of IN plutonium NN -LRB- -LRB- see VBP fast JJ breeder NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
28 Thermal JJ power NN reactors NNS can MD again RB be VB divided VBN into IN three CD types NNS , , depending VBG on IN whether IN they PRP use VBP pressurised JJ fuel NN channels NNS , , a DT large JJ pressure NN vessel NN or CC gas NN cooling NN . .
17 Pressure NN vessels NNS holding VBG steam NN heated VBN by IN the DT reactor NN are VBP used VBN by IN most JJS commercial JJ and CC naval JJ reactors NNS . .
10 This DT serves VBZ as IN a DT layer NN of IN shielding NN and CC containment NN . .
11 Pressurised VBN channels NNS are VBP used VBN by IN the DT RBMK NNP and CC CANDU NNP reactors NNS . .
18 Channel-type NNP reactors NNS can MD be VB refuelled VBN under IN load NN , , which WDT has VBZ advantages NNS and CC disadvantages NNS discussed VBN under IN CANDU NNP reactor NN . .
23 Gas-cooled JJ reactors NNS are VBP cooled VBN by IN a DT circulating VBG inert JJ gas NN , , usually RB Helium NNP , , but CC Nitrogen NNP and CC Carbon NNP Dioxide NNP have VBP also RB been VBN used VBN . .
7 Plans NNS to TO utilize VB the DT heat NN vary VBP . .
15 Some DT reactors NNS run VBP hot JJ enough RB that IN the DT gas NN can MD directly RB power VB a DT gas NN turbine NN . .
18 Older JJR designs NNS usually RB run VBP the DT gas NN through IN a DT heat NN exchanger NN to TO make VB steam NN for IN a DT steam NN turbine NN . .
9 The DT pebble JJ bed NN reactor NN uses VBZ a DT gas-cooled JJ design NN . .
17 Most JJS designs NNS for IN fast JJ power NN reactors NNS have VBP been VBN cooled VBN by IN liquid JJ metal NN , , usually RB molten JJ Sodium NNP . .
14 They PRP have VBP also RB been VBN of IN two CD types NNS , , called VBN pool NN and CC loop NN reactors NNS . .
68 Current JJ families NNS of IN reactors NNS Pressurized VBN water NN reactor NN -LRB- -LRB- PWR NNP -RRB- -RRB- Boiling NNP water NN reactor NN -LRB- -LRB- BWR NNP -RRB- -RRB- Pressurised VBN Heavy NNP Water NNP Reactor NNP -LRB- -LRB- PHWR NNP or CC CANDU NNP -RRB- -RRB- D2G NNP reactor NNP Pebble NNP bed VBD reactors NNS Obsolete JJ types NNS still RB in IN service NN Magnox NNP reactor NN Advanced NNP gas-cooled JJ Reactor NNP -LRB- -LRB- AGR NNP -RRB- -RRB- Light JJ water NN cooled VBD graphite JJ moderated JJ reactor NN -LRB- -LRB- RBMK NNP -RRB- -RRB- Advanced NNP reactors NNS More JJR than IN a DT dozen NN advanced JJ reactor NN designs NNS are VBP in IN various JJ stages NNS of IN development NN . .
19 Some DT are VBP evolutionary JJ from IN the DT PWR NNP , , BWR NNP and CC CANDU NNP designs NNS above IN , , some DT are VBP more RBR radical JJ departures NNS . .
20 The DT former JJ include VBP the DT Advanced NNP Boiling NNP Water NNP Reactor NNP , , two CD of IN which WDT are VBP now RB operating VBG with IN others NNS under IN construction NN . .
22 The DT best-known JJ radical JJ new JJ design NN is VBZ the DT Pebble NNP Bed NNP Modular NNP Reactor NNP -LRB- -LRB- PBMR NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , a DT high JJ temperature NN gas NN cooled VBD reactor NN . .
20 Other JJ possible JJ designs NNS exist VBP on IN the DT drawing VBG board NN , , notably RB the DT energy NN amplifier NN , , awaiting VBG political JJ support NN and CC funding NN . .
19 Nuclear JJ fuel NN cycle NN Main NNP article NN : : nuclear JJ fuel NN cycle NN Thermal , reactors NNS generally RB depend VBP on IN refined VBN and CC enriched JJ uranium NN . .
13 Some DT nuclear JJ reactors NNS can MD operate VB with IN a DT mixture NN of IN plutonium NN and CC uranium NN . .
28 The DT process NN by IN which WDT uranium NN ore NN is VBZ mined VBN , , processed VBN , , enriched JJ , , used VBN , , possibly RB reprocessed VBN and CC disposed VBN of IN is PRP$ known VBN as IN the DT nuclear JJ fuel NN cycle NN . .
17 Uranium NNP is VBZ sampled VBN and CC mined JJ as IN other JJ metals NNS are VBP , , via IN open-pit NN mining NN or CC leach VB mining NN . .
18 Raw JJ uranium NN ore NN found VBD in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS ranges VBZ from IN 0.05 CD % % to TO 0.3 CD % % uranium NN oxide NN . .
47 Uranium NNP ore NN is VBZ not RB rare JJ ; ; the DT largest JJS probable JJ resources NNS , , extractable JJ at IN a DT cost NN of IN US $ $ $ 80 CD per IN kilogram NN or CC cheaper JJR , , are VBP located VBN in IN Australia NNP , , Kazakhstan NNP , , Canada NNP , , South NNP Africa NNP , , Brazil NNP , , Namibia NNP , , Russia NNP , , and CC the DT United NNP States NNPS . .
16 The DT raw JJ ore NN is VBZ then RB milled VBN , , in IN which WDT it PRP is VBZ ground NN and CC chemically RB leached VBN . .
13 The DT resulting VBG powder NN of IN natural JJ uranium NN oxide NN is VBZ called VBN '' '' yellowcake NN '' '' . .
14 The DT yellowcake NN powder NN is VBZ then RB converted VBN to TO uranium NN hexafluoride NN to TO prepare VB for IN enrichment NN . .
38 Since IN under IN 1 CD % % of IN the DT uranium NN found VBD in IN nature NN is VBZ the DT easily RB fissionable JJ 235U JJ isotope NN , , the DT uranium NN must MD be VB enriched VBN to TO about RB 4 CD % % 235U JJ , , usually RB by IN means NNS of IN gaseous JJ diffusion NN or CC gas NN centrifuge NN . .
20 The DT enriched JJ result NN is VBZ then RB converted VBN into IN uranium NN dioxide NN powder NN , , which WDT is VBZ pressed VBN and CC fired VBD onto IN pellet NN form NN . .
15 These DT pellets NNS are VBP stacked VBN into IN tubes NNS which WDT are VBP then RB sealed VBD and CC called VBN fuel NN rods NNS . .
12 Many JJ of IN these DT fuel NN rods NNS are VBP used VBN in IN each DT nuclear JJ reactor NN . .
33 After IN its PRP$ operating VBG cycle NN , , the DT reactor NN is VBZ shut VBN down RP for IN refueling NN , , and CC the DT spent VBN fuel NN rods NNS are VBP stored VBN in IN a DT pool NN of IN water NN which WDT is VBZ usually RB located VBN at IN the DT site NN . .
18 The DT water NN provides VBZ both DT cooling VBG for IN the DT still-decaying JJ uranium NN , , and CC some DT shielding NN from IN the DT continuing VBG radioactivity NN . .
14 Continuing VBG storage NN of IN this DT high JJ level NN nuclear JJ waste NN is VBZ controversial JJ ; ; see VBP below IN . .
21 History JJ Enrico NNP Fermi NNP and CC Leo NNP Szilard NNP were VBD the DT first JJ to TO build VB a DT nuclear JJ pile NN and CC demonstrate VBP a DT controlled VBN chain NN reaction NN . .
20 In IN 1955 CD they PRP shared VBD a DT joint JJ patent NN for IN the DT nuclear JJ reactor NN , , issued VBN by IN the DT U.S NNP . . Patent NNP Office NNP . .
13 The DT first JJ nuclear JJ reactors NNS were VBD used VBN to TO generate VB plutonium NN for IN nuclear JJ weapons NNS . .
37 Additional JJ reactors NNS were VBD used VBN in IN the DT navy NN -LRB- -LRB- United NNP States NNPS Naval NNP reactor NN -RRB- -RRB- In IN the DT mid-1950s NNS , , both CC the DT Soviet NNP Union NNP and CC western JJ countries NNS were VBD expanding VBG their PRP$ nuclear JJ research NN to TO include VB non-military JJ uses NNS of IN the DT atom NN . .
18 However RB , , as IN with IN the DT military JJ program NN , , much RB of IN the DT non-military JJ work NN was VBD done VBN in IN secret NN . .
32 On IN December NNP 20 CD , , 1951 CD , , electric JJ power NN from IN a DT nuclear JJ powered JJ generater NN was VBD produced VBN for IN the DT first JJ time NN at IN Experimental NNP Breeder NNP Reactor-I NNP -LRB- -LRB- EBR-1 JJ -RRB- -RRB- located VBN near IN Arco NNP , , Idaho NNP . .
26 On IN June NNP 27 CD , , 1954 CD , , the DT world NN ' ' s POS first JJ nuclear JJ power NN plant NN generated VBD electricity NN but CC no DT headlines--at JJ least JJS , , not RB in IN the DT West NNP . .
29 According VBG to TO the DT Uranium NNP Institute NNP -LRB- -LRB- London NNP , , England NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , the DT first JJ reactor NN to TO generate VB electricity NN for IN commercial JJ use NN was VBD at IN Obninsk NNP , , Kaluga NNP Oblast NNP , , Russia NNP . .
21 The DT Shippingport NNP reactor NN -LRB- -LRB- in IN Pennsylvania NNP -RRB- -RRB- was VBD the DT first JJ commercial JJ nuclear JJ generator NN to TO become VB operational JJ in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS . .
14 The DT Shippingport NNP reactor NN was VBD ordered VBN in IN 1953 CD and CC began VBD commercial JJ operation NN in IN 1957 CD . .
22 In IN the DT aftermath NN of IN the DT 1979 CD Three NNP Mile NNP Island NNP accident NN , , the DT U.S NNP . . nuclear JJ market NN was VBD the DT first JJ to TO deteriorate VB . .
13 No DT new JJ nuclear JJ plants NNS have VBP been VBN ordered VBN in IN the DT USA NNP since IN then RB . .
18 Negative JJ influence NN of IN the DT 1986 CD Chernobyl NNP accident NN increased VBD regulations NNS which WDT increased VBD the DT costs NNS of IN operating VBG a DT reactor NN . .
19 In IN 1997 CD , , a DT total NN of IN 78 CD reactors NNS were VBD either RB under IN construction NN , , planned VBN , , or CC indefinitely RB deferred VBN . .
21 These DT units NNS have VBP a DT combined VBN capacity NN of IN 67,484 CD MWe NNP , , approximately RB 25 CD percent NN of IN the DT total JJ capacity NN already RB in IN existence NN . .
10 However RB , , only RB 45 CD reactors NNS were VBD under IN construction NN worldwide NN . .
12 The DT remaining JJ 33 CD units NNS are VBP either RB being VBG planned VBN or CC indefinitely RB deferred VBN . .
11 Three CD U.S NNP . . units NNS are VBP not RB projected VBN to TO come VB on-line JJ . .
28 Some DT experts NNS have VBP predicted VBN that IN Watts NNP Bar NNP 1 CD , , which WDT came VBD on-line JJ in IN 1997 CD , , will MD be VB the DT last JJ U.S NNP . . commercial JJ nuclear JJ reactor NN to TO go VB on-line JJ . .
18 Other JJ experts NNS , , however RB , , predict VBP that IN electricity NN shortages NNS will MD revamp VB the DT demand NN for IN nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS . .
59 As IN of IN 2003 CD , , the DT immediate JJ future NN of IN the DT industry NN in IN many JJ countries NNS still RB appeared VBD uncertain JJ , , the DT most JJS notable JJ exceptions NNS being VBG Japan NNP , , China NNP and CC India NNP , , all DT actively RB developing VBG both DT fast JJ and CC thermal JJ technology NN , , South NNP Korea NNP , , developing VBG thermal JJ technology NN only RB , , and CC South NNP Africa NNP , , developing VBG the DT Pebble NNP Bed NNP Modular NNP Reactor NNP -LRB- -LRB- PBMR NNP -RRB- -RRB- . .
25 As IN of IN the DT early JJ 21st JJ century NN , , nuclear JJ power NN is VBZ of IN particular JJ interest NN to TO both DT China NNP and CC India NNP to TO serve VB their PRP$ rapidly RB growing VBG economies NNS . .
27 Interestingly RB , , the DT first JJ organization NN to TO truly RB develop VB nuclear JJ power NN , , the DT U.S NNP . . Navy NNP , , is VBZ the DT only JJ organization NN worldwide RB with IN a DT truly RB clean JJ record NN . .
25 This DT is VBZ perhaps RB because IN of IN the DT stringent JJ demands NNS of IN Admiral NNP Hyman NNP G NNP . . Rickover NNP , , who WP was VBD the DT driving VBG force NN behind IN nuclear JJ marine JJ propulsion NN . .
27 The DT U.S NNP . . Navy NNP has VBZ operated VBN more JJR nuclear JJ reactors NNS than IN any DT other JJ entity NN , , other JJ than IN the DT Soviet JJ Navy NNP , , with IN no DT publically RB known VBN major JJ incidents NNS . .
49 Two CD U.S NNP . . nuclear JJ submarines NNS , , the DT USS NNP Scorpion NNP -LRB- -LRB- SSN-589 NNP -RRB- -RRB- and CC USS NNP Thresher NNP -LRB- -LRB- SSN-593 NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , have VBP been VBN lost VBN at IN sea NN , , though IN for IN reasons NNS not RB related VBN to TO their PRP$ reactors NNS , , and CC their PRP$ wrecks NNS are VBP situated VBN such JJ that IN the DT risk NN of IN contamination NN is VBZ considered VBN low JJ . .
32 Benefits NNS and CC disadvantages NNS Proponents NNS of IN nuclear JJ power NN point NN out RP that IN the DT technology NN emits VBZ virtually RB no DT airborne JJ pollut NN ants NNS , , and CC overall JJ far RB less JJR waste NN material NN than IN fossil JJ fuel NN based VBN power NN plants NNS . .
18 However RB , , reactors NNS do VBP release VB radioactive JJ products NNS - - such JJ as IN radioactive JJ Krypton NNP Gas NNP - - into IN the DT environment NN . .
30 The DT waste NN from IN highly RB radioactive JJ spent JJ fuels NNS needs VBZ to TO be VB handled VBN with IN great JJ care NN and CC forethought NN due JJ to TO the DT long JJ half-lifes NNS of IN the DT radioactive JJ isotopes NNS found VBD in IN the DT waste NN . .
44 In IN addition NN , , the DT nuclear JJ industry NN produces VBZ a DT much JJ greater JJR volume NN of IN low-level JJ radioactive JJ waste NN in IN the DT form NN of IN contaminated VBN items NNS like IN clothing NN , , hand NN tools NNS , , water NN purifier NN resins NNS , , and CC upon IN decomissioning VBG the DT materials NNS of IN which WDT the DT reactor NN itself PRP is VBZ built VBN . .
50 In IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , the DT NRC NNP has VBZ repeatedly RB attempted VBN to TO allow VB low-level JJ materials NNS to TO be VB handled VBN as IN normal JJ waste NN : : landfilled VBD , , recycled VBD into IN consumer NN items NNS , , etc FW . . Another DT concern NN is VBZ that IN civilian JJ nuclear JJ technology NN could MD be VB used VBN to TO create VB fissile JJ materials NNS for IN use NN in IN nuclear JJ weapons NNS . .
16 This DT concern NN is VBZ known VBN as IN nuclear JJ proliferation NN , , and CC is VBZ a DT major JJ reactor NN design NN criterion NN . .
39 While IN the DT enriched JJ uranium NN used VBN in IN most JJS nuclear JJ reactors NNS is VBZ not RB concentrated VBN enough RB to TO build VB a DT bomb NN , , the DT technology NN used VBN to TO enrich VB uranium NN could MD be VB used VBN to TO make VB the DT highly RB enriched VBN uranium NN needed VBN to TO build VB a DT bomb NN . .
20 In IN addition NN , , breeder NN reactor NN designs NNS such JJ as IN CANDU NNP can MD be VB used VBN to TO generate VB plutonium NN for IN bomb NN making VBG materials NNS . .
22 It PRP is VBZ believed VBN that IN the DT nuclear JJ programs NNS of IN India NNP and CC Pakistan NNP used VBD CANDU-like JJ reactors NNS to TO produce VB the DT fissinables NNS for IN their PRP$ weapons NNS . .
40 Critics NNS of IN nuclear JJ power NN assert NN that IN any DT of IN the DT environmental JJ benefits NNS are VBP outweighed VBN by IN safety NN concerns NNS and CC by IN costs NNS related VBN to TO the DT actual JJ construction NN and CC operation NN of IN nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS , , including VBG spent VBN fuel NN disposition NN and CC plant NN retirement NN costs NNS . .
46 Proponents NNS of IN nuclear JJ power NN maintain VBP that IN nuclear JJ energy NN is VBZ the DT only JJ power NN source NN which WDT explicitly RB factors NNS the DT estimated JJ cost NN of IN waste NN containment NN and CC plant NN decommissioning NN into IN its PRP$ overall JJ cost NN , , and CC that IN the DT quoted VBN cost NN of IN fossil JJ fuel NN plants NNS is VBZ deceptively RB low JJ for IN this DT reason NN . .
40 Nuclear JJ power NN does VBZ have VB very RB useful JJ additional JJ advantages NNS such JJ as IN the DT production NN of IN radioisotopes NNS which WDT are VBP used VBN in IN medicine NN and CC food NN preservation NN , , though IN the DT demand NN for IN these DT products NNS can MD be VB satisfied VBN by IN a DT relatively RB small JJ number NN of IN plants NNS . .
13 The DT safe JJ storage NN and CC disposal NN of IN nuclear JJ waste NN is VBZ a DT difficult JJ problem NN . .
41 Because IN of IN potential JJ harm NN from IN radiation NN , , the DT spent VBN nuclear JJ fuel NN must MD be VB stored VBN in IN shielded VBN basins NNS of IN water NN , , or CC in IN dry JJ storage NN vaults NNS or CC containers NNS until IN its PRP$ radioactivity NN decreases VBZ naturally RB -LRB- -LRB- '' '' decays NNS '' '' -RRB- -RRB- to TO safe JJ levels NNS . .
16 This DT can MD take VB days NNS or CC thousands NNS of IN years NNS , , depending VBG on IN the DT type NN of IN fuel NN . .
22 Most JJS waste NN is VBZ currently RB stored VBN in IN temporary JJ storage NN sites NNS , , requiring VBG constant JJ maintenance NN , , while IN suitable JJ permanent JJ disposal NN methods NNS are VBP discussed VBN . .
12 See VB the DT article NN on IN the DT nuclear JJ fuel NN cycle NN for IN more JJR information NN . .
25 A DT large JJ disadvantage NN for IN the DT use NN of IN nuclear JJ reactors NNS is VBZ the DT perceived VBN threat NN of IN an DT accident NN or CC terrorist JJ attack NN and CC resulting VBG exposure NN to TO radiation NN . .
26 Proponents NNS contend VBP that IN the DT potential NN for IN a DT meltdown NN as IN in IN Chernobyl NNP is VBZ very RB small JJ due JJ to TO the DT excess JJ care NN taken VBN in IN designing VBG adequate JJ safety NN systems NNS . .
27 Even RB in IN an DT accident NN such JJ as IN Three NNP Mile NNP Island NNP , , the DT containment NN vessels NNS were VBD never RB breached VBN , , so RB that IN very RB little JJ radiation NN was VBD exposed VBN to TO environment NN . .
29 Opponents NNS point VBP out RP that IN used VBN fuel NN - - currently RB stored VBN on IN site NN at IN most JJS reactors NNS - - usually RB resides VBZ in IN buildings NNS constructed VBD the DT same JJ way NN as IN a DT large JJ retail JJ establishment NN . .
30 These DT spent VBN fuel NN pools NNS contain VBP much RB more JJR radioactivity NN than IN the DT reactor NN itself PRP , , and CC can MD potentially RB attain VB '' '' criticality NN '' '' - - a DT chain NN reaction NN - - if IN not RB handled VBN properly RB . .
19 The DT facilities NNS have VBP no DT containment NN , , and CC are VBP vulnerable JJ to TO a DT terrorist JJ attack NN by IN even RB a DT light JJ plane NN . .
12 Low-dose JJ radiation NN released VBN under IN normal JJ operating NN conditions NNS is VBZ also RB a DT concern NN . .
29 Fission NNP reactors NNS produce VBP gases NNS such JJ as IN iodine-131 JJ or CC krypton-85 CD which WDT have VBP to TO be VB stored VBN on-site JJ for IN several JJ half-lives NNS until IN they PRP have VBP decayed VBN to TO levels NNS officially RB regarded VBN as IN safe JJ . .
29 But CC proponents NNS point VB out RP that IN the DT radioactive JJ contamination NN released VBN from IN a DT nuclear JJ reactor NN under IN normal JJ circumstances NNS is VBZ less JJR than IN the DT exposure NN from IN the DT waste NN of IN a DT coal-fired JJ plant NN . .
49 Environmental JJ concerns NNS The DT emissions NNS problems NNS of IN fossil JJ fuels NNS go VBP beyond IN the DT area NN of IN greenhouse NN gases NNS to TO include VB acid NN gases NNS -LRB- -LRB- sulfur NN dioxide NN and CC nitrogen NN oxides NNS -RRB- -RRB- , , particulates NNS , , heavy JJ metals NNS -LRB- -LRB- notably RB mercury NN , , but CC also RB including VBG radioactive JJ materials NNS -RRB- -RRB- , , and CC solid JJ wastes NNS such JJ as IN ash JJ . .
11 Some DT of IN these DT including VBG nitrogen NN oxides NNS are VBP also RB greenhouse NN gases NNS . .
12 Nuclear JJ power NN produces VBZ spent JJ fuels NNS , , a DT unique JJ solid JJ waste NN problem NN . .
20 In IN volume NN spent VBD fuels NNS from IN nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS are VBP roughly RB a DT million CD times NNS smaller JJR than IN fossil JJ fuel NN solid VBD wastes NNS . .
24 However RB , , because IN spent VBN nuclear JJ fuels NNS are VBP radioactive JJ , , they PRP are VBP pound NN for IN pound NN a DT more RBR substantial JJ problem NN -LRB- -LRB- see VB nuclear JJ waste NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
21 Nuclear NNP reactors NNS also RB regularly RB vent VB radioactive JJ gasses NNS - - which WDT have VBP too RB much JJ volume NN to TO conveniently VB store NN - - into IN the DT environment NN . .
33 In IN addition NN , , the DT nuclear JJ industry NN fuel NN cycle NN produces VBZ many JJ tons NNS of IN depleted VBN uranium NN -LRB- -LRB- uranium NN from IN which WDT the DT easily RB fissile JJ U235 IN element NN has VBZ been VBN removed VBN , , leaving VBG behind IN only RB U238 IN -RRB- -RRB- . .
17 This DT material NN is VBZ much JJ more JJR concentrated JJ than IN natural JJ uranium NN ores NNS , , and CC must MD be VB disposed VBN of IN . .
20 As IN of IN 2003 CD , , the DT United NNP States NNPS accumulated VBD about IN 49,000 CD metric JJ tons NNS of IN spent VBN nuclear JJ fuel NN from IN nuclear JJ reactors NNS . .
31 After IN 10,000 CD years NNS of IN radioactive JJ decay NN , , according VBG to TO United NNP States NNPS Environmental NNP Protection NNP Agency NNP standards NNS , , the DT spent VBN nuclear JJ fuel NN no RB longer RB poses VBZ a DT threat NN to TO public JJ health NN and CC safety NN . .
34 This DT is VBZ considerably RB longer RBR than IN the DT lifespan NN of IN any DT human JJ civilization NN or CC culture NN to TO date NN , , so RB it PRP is VBZ unclear JJ that IN this DT material NN can MD be VB safeguarded VBN over IN such JJ a DT long JJ period NN of IN time NN . .
19 The DT dangers NNS of IN nuclear JJ power NN must MD also RB be VB weighed VBN against IN the DT dangers NNS of IN other JJ methods NNS of IN electricity NN generation NN . .
12 See VB environmental JJ concerns NNS with IN electricity NN generation NN for IN discussion NN of IN this DT issue NN . .
25 Economic JJ barriers NNS In IN the DT U.S NNP . . , , a DT single JJ nuclear JJ power NN plant NN is VBZ significantly RB more RBR expensive JJ to TO build VB than IN a DT single JJ steam-based JJ coal-fired JJ plant NN . .
17 A DT coal NN plant NN is VBZ itself PRP more RBR expensive JJ to TO build VB than IN a DT single JJ natural JJ gas-fired JJ combined-cycle NN plant NN . .
60 Although IN the DT cost NN per IN megawatt NN for IN a DT nuclear JJ power NN plant NN is VBZ comparable JJ to TO a DT coal-fired JJ plant NN and CC less JJR than IN a DT natural JJ gas NN plant NN , , the DT smallest JJS nuclear JJ power NN plant NN that WDT can MD be VB built VBN is VBZ much RB larger JJR than IN the DT smallest JJS natural JJ gas NN power NN plant NN , , making VBG it PRP possible JJ for IN a DT utility NN to TO build VB natural JJ gas NN plants NNS in IN much JJ smaller JJR increments NNS . .
26 In IN the DT U.S NNP . . , , licensing NN , , inspection NN and CC certification NN delays NNS add VBP large JJ amounts NNS of IN time NN and CC cost NN to TO the DT construction NN of IN a DT nuclear JJ plant NN . .
15 These DT delays NNS and CC costs NNS are VBP not RB present JJ when WRB building NN either CC gas-fired JJ or CC coal-fired JJ plants NNS . .
25 Because IN a DT power NN plant NN does VBZ not RB earn VB money NN during IN construction NN , , longer JJR construction NN times NNS translate VBP directly RB into IN higher JJR interest NN charges NNS on IN borrowed VBN construction NN funds NNS . .
27 In IN the DT U.S NNP . . , , these DT charges NNS require VBP that IN coal NN and CC nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS must MD operate VB less-expensively RB than IN natural JJ gas NN plants NNS in IN order NN to TO be VB built VBN . .
33 In IN general JJ , , coal NN and CC nuclear JJ plants NNS have VBP the DT same JJ operating NN costs NNS -LRB- -LRB- operations NNS and CC maintenance NN plus CC fuel NN costs NNS -RRB- -RRB- , , however RB nuclear JJ and CC coal NN differ NN in IN the DT source NN of IN those DT costs NNS . .
14 Nuclear NNP has VBZ lower JJR fuel NN costs NNS but CC higher JJR operating NN and CC maintenance NN costs NNS than IN coal NN . .
24 In IN recent JJ times NNS in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS these DT operating VBG costs NNS have VBP not RB been VBN low JJ enough JJ for IN nuclear JJ to TO repay VB its PRP$ high JJ investment NN costs NNS . .
13 Thus RB new JJ nuclear JJ reactors NNS have VBP not RB been VBN built VBN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS . .
22 Coal NNP ' ' s POS operating VBG cost NN advantages NNS have VBP only RB rarely RB been VBN sufficient JJ to TO encourage VB the DT construction NN of IN new JJ coal NN based VBN power NN generation NN . .
19 Around IN 90 CD to TO 95 CD percent NN of IN new JJ power NN plant NN construction NN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS has VBZ been VBN natural JJ gas-fired JJ . .
12 These DT numbers NNS exclude VBP capacity NN expansions NNS at IN existing VBG coal NN and CC nuclear JJ units NNS . .
16 Both DT the DT nuclear JJ and CC coal NN industries NNS must MD reduce VB new JJ plant NN investment NN costs NNS and CC construction NN time NN . .
31 The DT burden NN is VBZ clearly RB higher JJR on IN nuclear JJ producers NNS than IN on IN coal NN producers NNS , , because IN investment NN costs NNS are VBP higher JJR for IN nuclear JJ plants NNS with IN no DT visible JJ advantage NN in IN operating VBG costs NNS over IN coal NN . .
34 The DT burden NN on IN operating VBG costs NNS on IN nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS is VBZ also RB greater JJR with IN operation NN and CC maintenance NN costs NNS particularly RB important JJ simply RB because IN operation NN and CC maintenance NN costs NNS are VBP a DT large JJ portion NN of IN nuclear JJ operating NN costs NNS . .
21 In IN Japan NNP and CC France NNP , , construction NN costs NNS and CC delays NNS are VBP significantly RB less JJR because IN of IN streamlined JJ government NN licensing NN and CC certification NN procedures NNS . .
27 In IN France NNP , , one CD model NN of IN reactor NN was VBD type-certified JJ , , using VBG a DT safety NN engineering NN process NN similar JJ to TO the DT process NN used VBN to TO certify JJ aircraft NN models NNS for IN safety NN . .
25 That DT is VBZ , , rather RB than IN licensing VBG individual JJ reactors NNS , , the DT regulatory JJ agency NN certified VBN a DT particular JJ design NN and CC its PRP$ construction NN process NN to TO produce VB safe JJ reactors NNS . .
24 U.S NNP . . law NN permits VBZ type-licensing NN of IN reactors NNS , , but CC no DT type NN license NN has VBZ ever RB been VBN issued VBN by IN a DT U.S NNP . . nuclear JJ regulatory JJ agency NN . .
31 Given VBN the DT financial JJ disadvantages NNS of IN nuclear JJ power NN in IN the DT U.S NNP . . , , it PRP is VBZ understandable JJ that IN the DT nuclear JJ industry NN also RB has VBZ sought VBN to TO find VB additional JJ benefits NNS to TO using VBG nuclear JJ power NN . .
34 Because IN coal NN fired VBN plants NNS produce VBP more JJR airborne NN emissions NNS , , clearly RB the DT price NN differential JJ accepted VBN between IN nuclear JJ and CC coal NN based VBN power NN would MD be VB greater JJR than IN the DT acceptable JJ difference NN between IN nuclear JJ power NN and CC natural JJ gas NN . .
11 Most RBS new JJ gas NN fired VBD plants NNS are VBP intended VBN for IN peak JJ supply NN . .
22 The DT larger JJR nuclear JJ and CC coal NN plants NNS cannot RB quickly RB adjust VBP their PRP$ instantaneous JJ power NN production NN , , and CC are VBP generally RB intended VBN for IN baseline JJ supply NN . .
15 The DT demand NN for IN baseline NN power NN has VBZ not RB increased VBN as RB rapidly RB as IN the DT peak JJ demand NN . .
18 Some DT new JJ experimental JJ reactors NNS , , notably RB pebble JJ bed NN modular JJ reactors NNS , , are VBP specifically RB designed VBN for IN peaking VBG power NN . .
27 Finally RB , , any DT company NN seeking VBG to TO construct VB a DT nuclear JJ reactor NN around IN the DT world NN -LRB- -LRB- but CC most RBS acutely RB in IN the DT US NNP -RRB- -RRB- must MD deal VB with IN NIMBY NNP issues NNS . .
37 Given VBN the DT high JJ profile NN of IN both DT Three NNP Mile NNP Island NNP and CC Chernobyl NNP , , few JJ municipalities NNS would MD welcome VB a DT new JJ nuclear JJ reactor NN within IN their PRP$ borders NNS , , and CC many JJ have VBP issued VBN local JJ ordinances NNS prohibiting VBG the DT development NN of IN nuclear JJ power NN . .
57 Nuclear NNP proliferation NN Critics NNS of IN nuclear JJ energy NN point NN out IN that IN the DT use NN of IN nuclear JJ technology NN could MD lead VB to TO the DT proliferation NN of IN nuclear JJ weapons NNS -LRB- -LRB- see VB nuclear JJ proliferation NN -RRB- -RRB- , , although IN the DT International NNP Atomic NNP Energy NNP A DT gency NN ' ' s POS safeguards NNS system NN under IN the DT Nuclear NNP Non-Proliferation NNP Treaty NNP has VBZ been VBN an DT international JJ success NN and CC has VBZ prevented VBN weapons NNS proliferation NN thus RB far RB . .
35 It PRP has VBZ involved VBN cooperation NN in IN developing VBG nuclear JJ energy NN for IN electricity NN generation NN , , while IN ensuring VBG that IN civil JJ uranium NN , , plutonium NN and CC associated VBN plants NNS did VBD not RB allow VB weapons NNS proliferation NN to TO occur VB as IN a DT result NN of IN this NN . .
33 International NNP nuclear JJ safeguards NNS are VBP administered VBN by IN the DT IAEA NNP and CC were VBD formally RB established VBN under IN the DT NPT NNP which WDT requires VBZ nations NNS to TO : : Report NNP to TO the DT IAEA NNP what WP nuclear JJ materials NNS they PRP hold VBP and CC their PRP$ location NN . .
27 Accept IN visits NNS by IN IAEA NNP auditors NNS and CC inspectors NNS to TO verify VB independently RB their PRP$ material NN reports NNS and CC physically RB inspect VBP the DT nuclear JJ materials NNS concerned VBN to TO confirm VB physical JJ inventories NNS of IN them PRP . .
42 However RB , , despite IN the DT fact NN that IN North NNP Korea NNP joined VBD the DT Nuclear NNP Non-Proliferation NNP Treaty NNP in IN 1985 CD , , the DT United NNP States NNPS claims VBZ they PRP have VBP managed VBN to TO obtain VB enough JJ material NN to TO create VB anywhere RB from IN one CD to TO five CD bombs NNS from IN their PRP$ fission NN reactor NN at IN Yongbyon NNP . .
22 The DT United NNP Nations NNPS is VBZ also RB investigating VBG Iran NNP , , which WDT is VBZ said VBN to TO have VB violated VBN the DT Nuclear NNP Non-Proliferation NNP Treaty NNP despite IN its PRP$ denial NN . .
17 Therefore RB , , the DT claims NNS that IN the DT Nuclear NNP Non-Proliferation NNP Treaty NNP is VBZ an DT international JJ success NN are VBP in IN dispute NN . .
18 Clearly RB it PRP has VBZ not RB stopped VBN Israel NNP , , India NNP , , Pakistan NNP or CC North NNP Korea NNP from IN creating VBG nuclear JJ weapons NNS . .
16 South NNP Africa NNP also RB might MD have VB created VBN nuclear JJ weapons NNS but CC has VBZ since IN renounced VBN its PRP$ nuclear JJ program NN . .
24 Statistics NNPS In IN 2000 CD , , there EX were VBD 438 CD commercial JJ nuclear JJ generating VBG units NNS throughout IN the DT world NN , , with IN a DT total JJ capacity NN of IN about IN 351 CD gigawatts NNS . .
54 In IN 2001 CD , , there EX were VBD 104 CD -LRB- -LRB- 69 CD pressurized JJ water NN reactors NNS , , 35 CD boiling NN water NN reactors NNS -RRB- -RRB- commercial JJ nuclear JJ generating VBG units NNS that WDT are VBP licensed VBN to TO operate VB in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , producing VBG 32,300 CD net JJ megawatts NNS -LRB- -LRB- electric JJ -RRB- -RRB- , , which WDT is VBZ approximately RB 20 CD percent NN of IN the DT nation NN ' ' s POS total JJ electric JJ energy NN consumption NN . .
15 The DT United NNP States NNPS is VBZ the DT world NN ' ' s POS largest JJS supplier NN of IN commercial JJ nuclear JJ power NN . .
18 In IN France NNP , , as IN of IN 2002 CD , , 78 CD % % of IN all DT electric JJ power NN comes VBZ from IN nuclear JJ reactors NNS . .
22 Natural JJ nuclear JJ reactors NNS A DT natural JJ nuclear JJ fission NN reactor NN can MD occur VB under IN certain JJ circumstances NNS that IN mimic VBP the DT conditions NNS in IN a DT constructed VBN reactor NN . .
24 The DT only RB known JJ natural JJ nuclear JJ reactor NN on IN Earth NNP ' ' s POS surface NN occurred VBD 2 CD billion CD years NNS ago RB in IN Ok NN lo NN , , Gabon NNP , , Africa NNP . .
10 -LRB- -LRB- 1 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . ans NNPS . . org/pi/np/oklo NNP -RRB- -RRB-
101 List NNP of IN atomic JJ energy NN groups NNS Areva NNP -LRB- -LRB- France NNP -RRB- -RRB- MinAtom NNP -LRB- -LRB- Russia NNP -RRB- -RRB- EnergoAtom NNP -LRB- -LRB- Ukraine NNP -RRB- -RRB- British JJ Energy NNP -LRB- -LRB- United NNP Kingdom NNP -RRB- -RRB- British NNP Nuclear NNP Fuels NNP -LRB- -LRB- BNFL NNP -RRB- -RRB- United NNP Kingdom NNP Atomic NNP Energy NNP Authority NNP -LRB- -LRB- UKAEA NNP -RRB- -RRB- Related JJ articles NNS Nuclear NNP Reactor NNP Operator NNP Badge NNP United NNP States NNPS Naval NNP reactor NN List NNP of IN nuclear JJ reactors NNS See VB also RB nuclear JJ fission NN nuclear JJ fusion NN power NN plant NN Nuclear JJ waste NN electricity NN generation NN nuclear JJ physics NNS Enrico NNP Fermi NNP Manhattan NNP Project NNP Nuclear NNP marine VB propulsion NN technology NN assessment NN List NN of IN nuclear JJ accidents NNS energy NN amplifier NN References NNS and CC links NNS Energy NNP Information NNP Administration NNP provides VBZ lots NNS of IN statistics NNS and CC information NN on IN the DT industry NN - - http://eia NN . . doe NN . . gov .
12 The DT Uranium NN Information NNP Centre NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . uic.com NN . . au NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
10 provided VBN some DT of IN the DT original JJ material NN in IN this DT article NN . .
15 The DT US NNP Nuclear NNP Regulatory NNP Commission NNP supervises VBZ the DT US NNP Nuclear NNP industry NN - - http://www NN . . nrc.gov . \/ /
22 The DT Idaho NNP National NNP Engineering NNP and CC Environmental NNP Laboratory NNP developed VBD nuclear JJ reactor NN technology NN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS http://newsdesk NN . . inel NN . . gov/press_releases/2001/05-21EBR_I_summer_tours NNS . . htm .
28 The DT International NNP Atomic NNP Energy NNP Agency NNP -LRB- -LRB- I PRP AEA NNP -RRB- -RRB- works VBZ with IN its PRP$ Member NNP States NNPS and CC multiple JJ partners NNS worldwide RB to TO promote VB safe JJ , , secure JJ and CC peaceful JJ nuclear JJ technologies NNS . .
7 - - http://www NN . . iaea NN . . org . \/ /
16 IAEA NNP ' ' s POS Knowledge NNP Base NNP on IN Gas NNP Cooled NNP Reactors NNS - - http://www NN . . iaea NN . . org/inis/aws/htgr . \/ /
15 The DT Pebble NNP Bed NNP Modular NNP Reactor NNP - - http://whyfiles VBZ . . org/130nukes/3.html SYM - - https://www NN . . pb NN mr.co.za . \/ /
16 Web NNP directory NN of IN nuclear JJ related JJ resources NNS on IN the DT Internet NNP - - http://www NN . . iaea NN . . org/inis/ws . \/ /
15 A DT pro JJ nuclear JJ site NN - - World NNP Nuclear NNP Association NNP - - http://www SYM . . world-nuclear JJ . . org . \/ /
12 An DT anti-nuclear JJ site NN - - Greenpeace NNP - - http://www NN . . greenpeace NN . . org/~nuclear . \/ /
12 A DT Debate NN : : Is VBZ Nuclear NNP Power NNP The DT Solution NNP to TO Global NNP Warming NNP ? ?
11 -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . democracynow NN . . org/article NN . . pl NN ? ? sid=04/09/24/1359225 CD -RRB- -RRB-
9 Retrieved VBN from IN '' '' http://en JJ . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor NNP '' ''
7 Categories NNPS : : Nuclear NNP technology NN |  Electric NNP power power
10 This DT article NN is VBZ about IN modelling VBG human JJ thought NN with IN computers NNS . .
55 For IN other JJ uses NNS of IN the DT term NN AI NNP , , see VBP Ai NNP . . Artificial NNP intelligence NN , , also RB known VBN as IN machine NN intelligence NN , , is VBZ defined VBN as IN intelligence NN exhibited VBN by IN anything NN manufactured VBN -LRB- -LRB- i FW . . e NN . . artificial NN -RRB- -RRB- by IN humans NNS or CC other JJ sentient JJ beings NNS or CC systems NNS -LRB- -LRB- should MD such PDT things NNS ever WDT exist VBP on IN Earth NNP or CC elsewhere RB -RRB- -RRB- . .
9 It PRP is VBZ usually RB hypothetically RB applied VBD to TO general-purpose JJ computers NNS . .
24 The DT term NN is VBZ also RB used VBN to TO refer VB to TO the DT field NN of IN scientific JJ investigation NN into IN the DT plausibility NN of IN and CC approaches NNS to TO creating VBG such JJ systems NNS . .
27 1 CD Overview NNP 2 CD Strong JJ AI NNP and CC weak JJ AI JJ 2.1 CD Strong JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN 2.2 CD Weak JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN 2.3 CD Philosophical JJ criticism NN and CC support NN of IN strong JJ AI JJ 3 CD History JJ 3.1 CD
42 Development NNP of IN AI NNP theory NN 3.2 CD Experimental NNP AI NNP research NN 4 CD Practical JJ applications NNS of IN AI NNP techniques NNS 5 CD Hypothetical NNP consequences NNS of IN AI NNP 6 CD Sub-fields NNS of IN AI NNP research NN 7 CD Famous JJ figures NNS 7.1 CD Machines NNS displaying VBG some DT degree NN of IN '' '' intelligence NN '' '' 7.2 CD AI JJ researchers NNS 8 CD Resources NNP 8.1 CD
5 Further RB reading VBG 8.1.1 CD Non-fiction NN 8.1.2 CD
53 Fiction IN 8.2 CD AI JJ related JJ organizations NNS 8.3 CD Sources NNS 8.4 CD See NNP also RB 8.4.1 CD Philosophy NNP 8.4.2 CD Logic NNP 8.4.3 CD Science NNP 8.4.4 CD Applications NNP 8.4.5 CD Uncategorised JJ 8.5 CD External NNP links NNS Overview IN The DT question NN of IN what WP artificial JJ intelligence NN is VBZ can MD be VB reduced VBN to TO two CD parts NNS : : '' '' what WP is VBZ the DT nature NN of IN artifice NN '' '' and CC '' '' what WP is VBZ intelligence NN '' '' ? ?
56 The DT first JJ question NN is VBZ fairly RB easy JJ to TO answer VB , , though IN it PRP does VBZ point NN to TO the DT question NN of IN what WP it PRP is VBZ possible JJ to TO manufacture VB -LRB- -LRB- within IN the DT constraints NNS of IN certain JJ types NNS of IN system NN , , e.g NN . . classical JJ computational JJ systems NNS , , of IN available JJ processes NNS of IN manufacturing NN and CC of IN possible JJ limits NNS on IN human JJ intellect NN , , for IN instance NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
49 The DT second JJ is VBZ much JJ harder NN , , raising VBG questions NNS of IN consciousness NN and CC self VBN , , mind NN -LRB- -LRB- including VBG the DT unconscious JJ mind NN -RRB- -RRB- and CC the DT question NN of IN what WP components NNS are VBP involved VBN in IN the DT only JJ type NN of IN intelligence NN it PRP is VBZ universally RB agreed VBN we PRP have VBP available JJ to TO study VB : : that IN of IN human JJ beings NNS . .
13 Intelligent NNP behavior NN in IN humans NNS is VBZ complex JJ and CC difficult JJ to TO study VB or CC understand VB . .
21 Study NN of IN animals NNS and CC artificial JJ systems NNS that WDT are VBP not RB just RB models NNS of IN what WP exists VBZ already RB are VBP also RB considered VBN widely RB pertinent JJ . .
11 Several JJ distinct JJ types NNS of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN have VBP been VBN elucidated VBN below IN . .
21 Also RB , , the DT subject JJ divisions NNS , , history NN , , proponents NNS and CC opponents NNS and CC applications NNS of IN research NN in IN the DT subject NN are VBP described VBN . .
13 Finally RB , , references NNS to TO fictional JJ and CC non-fictional JJ descriptions NNS of IN AI NNP are VBP provided VBN . .
48 Strong JJ AI NNP and CC weak JJ AI NNP One CD popular JJ and CC early JJ definition NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN research NN , , put VBD forth RB by IN John NNP McCarthy NNP at IN the DT Dartmouth NNP Conference NNP in IN 1956 CD , , is VBZ '' '' making VBG a DT machine NN behave NN in IN ways NNS that WDT would MD be VB called VBN intelligent JJ if IN a DT human JJ were VBD so RB behaving JJ . . '' ''
16 However RB this DT definition NN seems VBZ to TO ignore VB the DT possibility NN of IN strong JJ AI JJ -LRB- -LRB- see VB below IN -RRB- -RRB- . .
13 Another DT definition NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN is VBZ intelligence JJ arising VBG from IN an DT artificial JJ device NN . .
30 Most JJS definitions NNS could MD be VB categorized VBN as IN concerning VBG either CC systems NNS that WDT think VBP like IN humans NNS , , systems NNS that WDT act VBP like IN humans NNS , , systems NNS that WDT think VBP rationally RB or CC systems NNS that WDT act VBP rationally RB . .
40 Strong JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN Strong JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN research NN deals NNS with IN the DT creation NN of IN some DT form NN of IN computer-based JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN that WDT can MD truly RB reason NN and CC solve VB problems NNS ; ; a DT strong JJ form NN of IN AI NNP is VBZ said VBN to TO be VB sentient VBN , , or CC self-aware NN . .
28 In IN theory NN , , there EX are VBP two CD types NNS of IN strong JJ AI NNP : : Human-like NNP AI NNP , , in IN which WDT the DT computer NN program NN thinks NNS and CC reasons NNS much RB like IN a DT human JJ mind NN . .
23 Non-human-like JJ AI NNP , , in IN which WDT the DT computer NN program NN develops VBZ a DT totally RB non-human JJ sentience NN , , and CC a DT non-human JJ way NN of IN thinking VBG and CC reasoning NN . .
52 Weak VB artificial JJ intelligence NN Weak VB artificial JJ intelligence NN research NN deals NNS with IN the DT creation NN of IN some DT form NN of IN computer-based JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN that WDT cannot MD truly RB reason NN and CC solve VB problems NNS ; ; such PDT a DT machine NN would MD , , in IN some DT ways NNS , , act NN as IN if IN it PRP were VBD intelligent JJ , , but CC it PRP would MD not RB possess VB true JJ intelligence NN or CC sentience NN . .
15 There EX are VBP several JJ fields NNS of IN weak JJ AI NNP , , one CD of IN which WDT is VBZ natural JJ language NN . .
14 Many JJ weak JJ AI JJ fields NNS have VBP specialised VBN software NN or CC programming VBG languages NNS created VBN for IN them PRP . .
24 For IN example NN , , the DT ' ' most-human JJ ' ' natural JJ language NN chatterbot NN A.L.I.C.E NNP . . uses VBZ a DT programming NN language NN AIML NNP that WDT is VBZ specific JJ to TO its PRP$ program NN . .
25 To TO date NN , , much RB of IN the DT work NN in IN this DT field NN has VBZ been VBN done VBN with IN computer NN simulations NNS of IN intelligence NN based VBN on IN predefined JJ sets NNS of IN rules NNS . .
10 Very DT little JJ progress NN has VBZ been VBN made VBN in IN strong JJ AI NNP . .
53 Depending VBG on IN how WRB one CD defines VBZ one CD ' ' s POS goals NNS , , a DT moderate JJ amount NN of IN progress NN has VBZ been VBN made VBN in IN weak JJ AI NNP . . Philosophical NNP criticism NN and CC support NN of IN strong JJ AI JJ The DT term NN '' '' Strong JJ AI NNP '' '' was VBD originally RB coined VBN by IN John NNP Searle NNP and CC was VBD applied VBN to TO digital JJ computers NNS and CC other JJ information NN processing NN machines NNS . .
45 Searle NNP defined VBD strong JJ AI NNP : : '' '' according VBG to TO strong JJ AI NNP , , the DT computer NN is VBZ not RB merely RB a DT tool NN in IN the DT study NN of IN the DT mind NN ; ; rather RB , , the DT appropriately RB programmed JJ computer NN really RB is VBZ a DT mind NN '' '' -LRB- -LRB- J NNP Searle NNP in IN Minds NNP Brains NNP and CC Programs NNP . .
8 The DT Behavioral NNP and CC Brain NNP Sciences NNPS , , vol NN . .
5 3 CD , , 1980 CD -RRB- -RRB- . .
51 Searle NNP and CC most RBS others NNS involved VBN in IN this DT debate NN are VBP addressing VBG the DT problem NN of IN whether IN a DT machine NN that WDT works VBZ solely RB through IN the DT transformation NN of IN encoded VBN data NNS could MD be VB a DT mind NN , , not RB the DT wider JJR issue NN of IN Monism NNP versus FW Dualism NNP -LRB- -LRB- ie NN : : whether IN a DT biological JJ machine NN could MD contain VB a DT mind NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
19 Searle NNP points VBZ out RP in IN his PRP$ Chinese JJ Room NNP Argument NNP that WDT information NN processors NNS carry VBP encoded VBN data NNS which WDT describe VBP other JJ things NNS . .
16 The DT encoded VBN data NNS itself PRP is VBZ meaningless RB without IN a DT cross NN reference NN to TO the DT things NNS it PRP describes VBZ . .
19 This DT leads VBZ Searle NNP to TO point VB out RP that IN there EX is VBZ no DT meaning NN or CC understanding NN in IN an DT information NN processor NN itself PRP . .
26 As IN a DT result NN Searle NNP claims VBZ to TO demonstrate VB that IN even RB a DT machine NN that WDT passed VBD the DT Turing JJ test NN would MD not RB necessarily RB be VB conscious JJ in IN the DT human JJ sense NN . .
6 Other JJ philosophers NNS hold VBP opposing VBG views NNS . .
47 Daniel NNP C NNP . . Dennett NNP argues VBZ in IN Consciousness NNP Explained VBZ that IN if IN there EX is VBZ no DT magic JJ spark JJ or CC soul NN , , then RB Man NNP is VBZ just RB a DT machine NN , , and CC he PRP asks VBZ why WRB the DT Man-machine NNP should MD have VB a DT privileged JJ position NN over IN all DT other JJ possible JJ machines NNS when WRB it PRP comes VBZ to TO intelligence NN . .
20 Dennett NNP goes VBZ further RB than IN this DT support NN for IN weak JJ AI NNP , , and CC also RB proposes VBZ that DT information NN processors NNS could MD become VB minds NNS . .
17 Some DT philosophers NNS hold VBP that IN if IN Weak NNP AI NNP is VBZ accepted VBN as IN possible JJ then RB so RB must MD Strong NNP AI NNP . .
41 The DT Weak NNP AI NNP position NN , , that IN intelligence NN might MD be VB apparent JJ but CC would MD not RB be VB a DT ' ' mind JJ ' ' , , is VBZ countered VBN in IN many JJ ways NNS , , but CC one CD accessible JJ example NN can MD be VB found VBN in IN Simon NNP Blackburn NNP introduction NN to TO philosophy NN , , Think VBP . .
39 Blackburn NNP points VBZ out RP that IN you PRP might MD appear VB intelligent JJ but CC there EX is VBZ no DT way NN of IN telling VBG if IN that WDT intelligence NN is VBZ real JJ -LRB- -LRB- ie NN : : a DT ' ' mind JJ ' ' -RRB- -RRB- : : We PRP have VBP to TO take VB it PRP on IN trust NN or CC faith NN . .
82 Strong JJ AI NNP seems VBZ to TO involve VB the DT following VBG assumptions NNS about IN the DT mind NN : : the DT mind NN is VBZ software NN , , a DT finite JJ state NN machine NN so IN the DT Church-Turing NNP thesis LS applies VBZ to TO it PRP presentism NN describes VBZ the DT mind NN the DT mind NN exists VBZ exclusively RB within IN the DT brain NN And CC the DT following VBG assumption NN about IN the DT brain NN : : the DT brain NN is VBZ purely RB hardware NN -LRB- -LRB- i FW . . e NN . . only RB follows VBZ the DT rules NNS of IN a DT classical JJ compute NN r NN -RRB- -RRB- Some DT -LRB- -LRB- including VBG Roger NNP Pen NNP rose VBD -RRB- -RRB- attack NN the DT applicability NN of IN the DT Church-Turing NNP thesis NN . .
9 Others NNS say VBP the DT mind NN is VBZ not RB completely RB physical JJ . .
18 Roger NNP Pen NNP rose VBD ' ' s POS argument NN rests NNS on IN the DT conception NN of IN hypercomputation NN being VBG possible JJ in IN our PRP$ universe NN . .
20 Quantum NNP mechanics NNS and CC newtonian JJ mechanics NNS do VBP not RB allow VB hypercomputation NN but CC it PRP is VBZ thought VBN that IN some DT strange JJ space NN times NNS would MD . .
18 However RB there EX seems VBZ to TO be VB agreement NN that IN our PRP$ universe NN is VBZ not RB sufficiently RB convoluted VBN to TO allow VB such JJ hypercomputation NN . .
23 Ultimately RB the DT truth NN of IN Strong JJ AI NNP depends VBZ upon IN whether IN information NN processing NN machines NNS can MD include VB all PDT the DT properties NNS of IN minds NNS such JJ as IN Consciousness NNP . .
43 However RB , , Weak NNP AI NNP is VBZ independent JJ of IN the DT Strong JJ AI NNP problem NN and CC there EX can MD be VB no DT doubt NN that IN many JJ of IN the DT features NNS of IN modern JJ computers NNS such JJ as IN multiplication NN or CC database NN searching NN might MD have VB been VBN considered VBN ' ' intelligent JJ ' ' only RB a DT century NN ago RB . .
41 History JJ Development NNP of IN AI NNP theory NN Much RB of IN the DT -LRB- -LRB- original JJ -RRB- -RRB- focus NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN research NN draws VBZ from IN an DT experimental JJ approach NN to TO psychology NN , , and CC emphasizes VBZ what WP may MD be VB called VBN linguistic JJ intelligence NN -LRB- -LRB- best JJS exemplified VBN in IN the DT Turing JJ test NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
51 Approaches NNP to TO artificial JJ intelligence NN that WDT do VBP not RB focus VB on IN linguistic JJ intelligence NN include VBP robotics NNS and CC collective JJ intelligence NN approaches NNS , , which WDT focus NN on IN active JJ manipulation NN of IN an DT environment NN , , or CC consensus NN decision NN making NN , , and CC draw VB from IN biology NN and CC political JJ science NN when WRB seeking VBG models NNS of IN how WRB '' '' intelligent JJ '' '' behavior NN is VBZ organized VBN . .
55 Artificial JJ intelligence NN theory NN also RB draws VBZ from IN animal NN studies NNS , , in IN particular JJ with IN insects NNS , , which WDT are VBP easier JJR to TO emulate VB as IN robots NNS -LRB- -LRB- see VB artificial JJ life NN -RRB- -RRB- , , as RB well RB as IN animals NNS with IN more RBR complex JJ cognition NN , , including VBG apes NNS , , who WP resemble VBP humans NNS in IN many JJ ways NNS but CC have VBP less RBR developed VBN capacities NNS for IN planning NN and CC cognition NN . .
20 AI JJ researchers NNS argue VBP that IN animals NNS , , which WDT are VBP simpler JJR than IN humans NNS , , ought MD to TO be VB considerably RB easier JJR to TO mimic VB . .
11 But CC satisfactory JJ computational JJ models NNS for IN animal NN intelligence NN are VBP not RB available JJ . .
52 Seminal JJ papers NNS advancing VBG the DT concept NN of IN machine NN intelligence NN include VBP A DT Logical NNP Calculus NNP of IN the DT Ideas NNP Immanent NNP in IN Nervous JJ Activity NN -LRB- -LRB- 1943 CD -RRB- -RRB- , , by IN Warren NNP McCulloch NNP and CC Walter NNP Pitts NNP , , and CC On IN Computing NNP Machinery NNP and CC Intelligence NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1950 CD -RRB- -RRB- , , by IN Alan NNP Turing NNP , , and CC Man-Computer NNP Symbiosis NNP by IN J.C.R NNP . . Licklider NNP . .
9 See VB cybernetics NNS and CC Turing VBG test NN for IN further JJ discussion NN . .
43 There EX were VBD also RB early JJ papers NNS which WDT denied VBD the DT possibility NN of IN machine NN intelligence NN on IN logical JJ or CC philosophical JJ grounds NNS such JJ as IN Minds NNP , , Machines NNP and CC Godel NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1961 CD -RRB- -RRB- by IN John NNP Lucas NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://users NNS . . ox NN . . ac.uk/~jrlucas/Godel/mmg JJ . . html NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
51 With IN the DT development NN of IN practical JJ techniques NNS based VBN on IN AI NNP research NN , , advocates NNS of IN AI NNP have VBP argued VBN that IN opponents NNS of IN AI NNP have VBP repeatedly RB changed VBN their PRP$ position NN on IN tasks NNS such JJ as IN computer NN chess NN or CC speech NN recognition NN that WDT were VBD previously RB regarded VBN as IN '' '' intelligent JJ '' '' in IN order NN to TO deny VB the DT accomplishments NNS of IN AI NNP . .
25 They PRP point VBP out RP that IN this DT moving NN of IN the DT goalposts NNS effectively RB defines VBZ '' '' intelligence NN '' '' as IN '' '' whatever WDT humans NNS can MD do VB that DT machines NNS cannot MD '' '' . .
47 John NNP von NNP Neumann NNP -LRB- -LRB- quoted VBN by IN E.T NNP . . Jaynes NNP -RRB- -RRB- anticipated VBN this DT in IN 1948 CD by IN saying VBG , , in IN response NN to TO a DT comment NN at IN a DT lecture NN that IN it PRP was VBD impossible JJ for IN a DT machine NN to TO think VB : : '' '' You PRP insist VBP that IN there EX is VBZ something NN a DT machine NN cannot NN do VBP . .
54 If IN you PRP will MD tell VB me PRP precisely RB what WP it PRP is VBZ that IN a DT machine NN cannot NN do VBP , , then RB I PRP can MD always RB make VB a DT machine NN which WDT will MD do VB just RB that IN ! ! . . Von NNP Neumann NNP was VBD presumably RB alluding JJ to TO the DT Church-Turing NNP thesis POS which WDT states VBZ that IN any DT effective JJ procedure NN can MD be VB simulated VBN by IN a DT -LRB- -LRB- generalized JJ -RRB- -RRB- computer NN . .
28 In IN 1969 CD McCarthy NNP and CC Hayes NNP started VBD the DT discussion NN about IN the DT frame NN problem NN with IN their PRP$ essay NN , , '' '' Some DT Philosophical JJ Problems NNS from IN the DT Standpoint NNP of IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP '' '' . .
49 Experimental NNP AI NNP research NN Artificial NNP intelligence NN began VBD as IN an DT experimental JJ field NN in IN the DT 1950s NNS with IN such JJ pioneers NNS as IN Allen NNP Newell NNP and CC Herbert NNP Simon NNP , , who WP founded VBD the DT first JJ artificial JJ intelligence NN laboratory NN at IN Carnegie-Mellon NNP University NNP , , and CC McCarthy NNP and CC Marvin NNP Minsky NNP , , who WP founded VBD the DT MIT NNP AI NNP Lab NNP in IN 1959 CD . .
29 They PRP all DT attended VBD the DT aforementioned JJ Dartmouth NNP College NNP summer NN AI NNP conference NN in IN 1956 CD , , which WDT was VBD organized VBN by IN McCarthy NNP , , Minsky NNP , , Nathan NNP Rochester NNP of IN IBM NNP and CC Claude NNP Shannon NNP . .
20 Historically RB , , there EX are VBP two CD broad JJ styles NNS of IN AI NNP research NN - - the DT '' '' neats NNS '' '' and CC '' '' scruffies NNS '' '' . .
30 '' '' Neat NNP '' '' , , classical JJ or CC symbolic JJ AI JJ research NN , , in IN general JJ , , involves VBZ symbolic JJ manipulation NN of IN abstract JJ concepts NNS , , and CC is VBZ the DT methodology NN used VBN in IN most RBS expert JJ systems NNS . .
53 Parallel NNP to TO this DT are VBP the DT '' '' scruffy NN '' '' , , or CC '' '' connectionist JJ '' '' , , approaches VBZ , , of IN which WDT neural JJ networks NNS are VBP the DT best-known JJ example NN , , which WDT try VBP to TO '' '' evolve VB '' '' intelligence NN through IN building VBG systems NNS and CC then RB improving VBG them PRP through IN some DT automatic JJ process NN rather RB than IN systematically RB designing VBG something NN to TO complete VB the DT task NN . .
9 Both DT approaches NNS appeared VBD very RB early RB in IN AI JJ history NN . .
35 Throughout IN the DT 1960s CD and CC 1970s CD scruffy NN approaches NNS were VBD pushed VBN to TO the DT background NN , , but CC interest NN was VBD regained VBN in IN the DT 1980s NNS when WRB the DT limitations NNS of IN the DT '' '' neat JJ '' '' approaches NNS of IN the DT time NN became VBD clearer JJR . .
17 However RB , , it PRP has VBZ become VBN clear JJ that IN contemporary JJ methods NNS using VBG both DT broad JJ approaches NNS have VBP severe JJ limitations NNS . .
32 Artificial NNP intelligence NN research NN was VBD very RB heavily RB funded VBN in IN the DT 1980s NNS by IN the DT Defense NNP Advanced NNP Research NNP Projects NNP Agency NNP in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS and CC by IN the DT fifth JJ generation NN computer NN systems NNS project NN in IN Japan NNP . .
53 The DT failure NN of IN the DT work NN funded VBN at IN the DT time NN to TO produce VB immediate JJ results NNS , , despite IN the DT grandiose JJ promises NNS of IN some DT AI NNP practitioners NNS , , led VBD to TO correspondingly RB large JJ cutbacks NNS in IN funding NN by IN government NN agencies NNS in IN the DT late JJ 1980s NNS , , leading VBG to TO a DT general JJ downturn NN in IN activity NN in IN the DT field NN known VBN as IN AI JJ winter NN . .
37 Over IN the DT following VBG decade NN , , many JJ AI JJ researchers NNS moved VBD into IN related VBN areas NNS with IN more RBR modest JJ goals NNS such JJ as IN machine NN learning VBG , , robotics NNS , , and CC computer NN vision NN , , though IN research NN in IN pure JJ AI NNP continued VBD at IN reduced JJ levels NNS . .
26 Practical JJ applications NNS of IN AI NNP techniques NNS Whilst IN progress NN towards IN the DT ultimate JJ goal NN of IN human-like JJ intelligence NN has VBZ been VBN slow JJ , , many JJ spinoffs NNS have VBP come VBN in IN the DT process NN . .
23 Notable JJ examples NNS include VBP the DT languages NNS LISP NNP and CC Prolog NNP , , which WDT were VBD invented VBN for IN AI NNP research NN but CC are VBP now RB used VBN for IN non-AI JJ tasks NNS . .
47 Hacker NNP culture NN first RB sprang VBD from IN AI NNP laboratories NNS , , in IN particular JJ the DT MIT NNP AI NNP Lab NNP , , home NN at IN various JJ times NNS to TO such JJ luminaries NNS as IN McCarthy NNP , , Minsky NNP , , Seymour NNP Papert NNP -LRB- -LRB- who WP developed VBD Logo NNP there RB -RRB- -RRB- , , Terry NNP Winograd NNP -LRB- -LRB- who WP abandoned VBD AI NNP after IN developing VBG SHRDLU NNP -RRB- -RRB- . .
20 Many JJ other JJ useful JJ systems NNS have VBP been VBN built VBN using VBG technologies NNS that IN at IN least JJS once RB were VBD active JJ areas NNS of IN AI JJ research NN . .
19 Some DT examples NNS include VBP : : Chinook NNP was VBD declared VBN the DT Man-Machine NNP World NNP Champion NNP in IN checkers NNS -LRB- -LRB- draughts NNS -RRB- -RRB- in IN 1994 CD . .
18 Deep NNP B NNP lue NN , , a DT chess-playing JJ computer NN , , beat VBD Garry NNP Kasparov NNP in IN a DT famous JJ match NN in IN 1997 CD . .
19 Fuzzy JJ logic NN , , a DT technique NN for IN reasoning VBG under IN uncertainty NN , , has VBZ been VBN widely RB used VBN in IN industrial JJ control NN systems NNS . .
11 Expert NN systems NNS are VBP being VBG used VBN to TO some DT extent NN industri JJ ally NN . .
20 Machine NN translation NN systems NNS such JJ as IN SYSTRAN NNP are VBP widely RB used VBN , , although IN results NNS are VBP not RB yet RB comparable JJ with IN human JJ translators NNS . .
20 Neural JJ networks NNS have VBP been VBN used VBN for IN a DT wide JJ variety NN of IN tasks NNS , , from IN intrusion NN detection NN systems NNS to TO computer NN games NNS . .
13 Optical JJ character NN recognition NN systems NNS can MD translate VB arbitrary JJ typewritten JJ European JJ script NN into IN text NN . .
11 Handwriting NN recognition NN is VBZ used VBN in IN millions NNS of IN personal JJ digital JJ assistants NNS . .
10 Speech NNP recognition NN is VBZ commercially RB available JJ and CC is VBZ widely RB deployed VBN . .
14 Computer NN algebra NN systems NNS , , such JJ as IN Mathematica NNP and CC Macsyma NNP , , are VBP commo JJ nplace NN . .
17 Machine NN vision NN systems NNS are VBP used VBN in IN many JJ industrial JJ applications NNS ranging VBG from IN hardware NN verification NN to TO security NN systems NNS . .
52 The DT vision NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN replacing VBG human JJ professional JJ judgment NN has VBZ arisen VBN many JJ times NNS in IN the DT history NN of IN the DT field NN , , in IN science NN fiction NN and CC today NN in IN some DT specialized JJ areas NNS where WRB '' '' expert NN systems NNS '' '' are VBP used VBN to TO augment VB or CC to TO replace VB professional JJ judgment NN in IN some DT areas NNS of IN engineering NN and CC of IN medicine NN . .
23 Hypothetical JJ consequences NNS of IN AI JJ Some DT observers NNS foresee VBP the DT development NN of IN systems NNS that WDT are VBP far RB more RBR intelligent JJ and CC complex JJ than IN anything NN currently RB known VBN . .
9 One CD name NN for IN these DT hypothetical JJ systems NNS is VBZ artilects NNS . .
15 With IN the DT introduction NN of IN artificially RB intelligent JJ non-deterministic JJ systems NNS , , many JJ ethical JJ issues NNS will MD arise VB . .
11 Many JJ of IN these DT issues NNS have VBP never RB been VBN encountered VBN by IN humanity NN . .
45 Over IN time NN , , debates NNS have VBP tended VBN to TO focus VB less RBR and CC less RBR on IN '' '' possibility NN '' '' and CC more RBR on IN '' '' desirability NN '' '' , , as IN emphasized VBN in IN the DT '' '' Cosmist NNP '' '' -LRB- -LRB- versus FW '' '' Terran NNP '' '' -RRB- -RRB- debates VBZ initiated VBN by IN Hugo NNP de NNP Garis NNP and CC Kevin NNP Warwick NNP . .
21 A DT Cosmist NNP , , according VBG to TO de VB Garis NNP , , is VBZ actually RB seeking VBG to TO build VB more JJR intelligent JJ successors NNS to TO the DT human JJ species NNS . .
22 The DT emergence NN of IN this DT debate NN suggests VBZ that IN desirability NN questions NNS may MD also RB have VB influenced VBN some DT of IN the DT early JJ thinkers NNS '' '' against IN '' '' . .
19 Some DT issues NNS that WDT bring VBP up RP interesting JJ ethical JJ questions NNS are VBP : : Determining VBG the DT sentience NN of IN a DT system NN we PRP create VBP . .
16 Turing VBG test NN Cognition NN Why WRB do VBP we PRP have VBP a DT need NN to TO categorize VB these DT systems NNS at IN all DT ? ?
9 Can MD AI RB be VB defined VBN in IN a DT graded JJ sense NN ? ?
28 Freedoms NNS and CC rights NNS for IN these DT systems NNS Can MD AIs RB be VB '' '' smarter RBR '' '' than IN humans NNS in IN the DT same JJ way NN that IN we PRP are VBP '' '' smarter RBR '' '' than IN other JJ animals NNS ? ?
58 Designing VBG systems NNS that WDT are VBP far RB more RBR intelligent JJ than IN any DT one CD human JJ Deciding NNP how WRB many JJ safe-guards NNS to TO design VB into IN these DT systems NNS Seeing VBG how WRB much JJ learning NN capability NN a DT system NN needs VBZ to TO replicate VB human JJ thought NN , , or CC how WRB well RB it PRP could MD do VB tasks NNS without IN it PRP -LRB- -LRB- e JJ . . g FW . . expert NN systems NNS -RRB- -RRB- The DT Singularity NNP Effect NN on IN careers NNS and CC jobs NNS . .
10 The DT problems NNS may MD resemble VB problems NNS seen VBN under IN free JJ trade NN . .
56 Sub-fields NNS of IN AI NNP research NN Combinatorial NNP search NN Computer NNP vision NN Expert NN system NN Genetic JJ programming NN Genetic JJ algorithm NN Knowledge VBP representation NN Machine NN learning VBG Machine NN planning NN Neural JJ network NN Natural JJ language NN processing VBG Program NNP synthesis NN Robotics NNP Artificial NNP life NN Artificial NNP being VBG Distributed VBN artificial JJ intelligence NN Swarm JJ Intelligence NNP Logic NNP programming NN was VBD sometimes RB considered VBN a DT field NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN , , but CC this DT is VBZ no RB longer RB the DT case NN . .
22 Famous NNP figures NNS Machines NNS displaying VBG some DT degree NN of IN '' '' intelligence NN '' '' There EX are VBP many JJ examples NNS of IN programs NNS displaying VBG some DT degree NN of IN intelligence NN . .
16 Some DT of IN these DT are VBP : : The DT Start NNP Project NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www VB . . ai.mit NN . . edu/projects/infolab NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
10 - - a DT web-based JJ system NN which WDT answers VBZ questions NNS in IN English NNP . .
19 Cyc NNP , , a DT knowledge NN base NN with IN vast JJ collection NN of IN facts NNS about IN the DT real JJ world NN and CC logical JJ reasoning NN ability NN . .
13 ALICE NNP , , a DT chatterbot NN Alan NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . a-i JJ . . com/alan1 CD -RRB- -RRB- , ,
34 another DT chatterbot NN ELIZA NNP , , a DT program NN which WDT pretends VBZ to TO be VB a DT psychotherapist NN , , developed VBN in IN 1966 CD PAM NNP -LRB- -LRB- Plan NNP Applier NNP Mechanism NNP -RRB- -RRB- - - a DT story NN understanding VBG system NN developed VBN by IN John NNP Wilensky NNP in IN 1978 CD . .
16 SAM NNP -LRB- -LRB- Script NNP applier NN mechanism NN -RRB- -RRB- - - a DT story NN understanding NN system NN , , developed VBN in IN 1975 CD . .
13 SHRDLU NNP - - an DT early JJ natural JJ language NN understanding NN computer NN program NN developed VBN in IN 1968-1970 CD . .
25 Creatures VBZ , , a DT computer NN game NN with IN breeding VBG , , evolving VBG creatures NNS coded VBD from IN the DT genetic JJ level NN upwards RB using VBG a DT sophisticated JJ biochemistry NN and CC neural JJ network NN brains NNS . .
11 BBC NNP news NN story NN -LRB- -LRB- http://news.b JJ bc NN . . co.uk/1/hi/wales/3521852 CD . . stm NN -RRB- -RRB-
8 on IN the DT creator NN of IN Creatures NNPS latest JJS creation NN . .
6 Steve NNP Grand NNP ' ' s POS Lucy NNP . .
23 Eurisko NNP - - a DT language NN for IN solving VBG problems NNS which WDT consists VBZ of IN heuristics NNS , , including VBG heuristics NNS for IN how WRB to TO use VB and CC change VB its PRP$ heuristics NNS . .
7 Developed NNP in IN 1978 CD by IN Douglas NNP Lenat NNP . .
12 X-Ray NNP Vision NNP for IN Surgeons NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . ai.mit NN . . edu/projects/medical-vision NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
10 - - a DT group NN in IN MIT NNP which WDT researches VBZ medical JJ vision NN . .
15 Neural JJ networks-based JJ programs NNS for IN backgammon JJ and CC go VB -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . jellyfish-ai JJ . . com NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
20 AI JJ researchers NNS There RB are VBP many JJ thousands NNS of IN AI JJ researchers NNS around IN the DT world NN at IN hundreds NNS of IN research NN institutions NNS and CC companies NNS . .
71 Among IN the DT many JJ who WP have VBP made VBN significant JJ contributions NNS are VBP : : Maggie NNP Boden NNP Rodney NNP Brooks NNP Boris NNP Katz NNP Doug NNP Lenat NNP John NNP McCarthy NNP Marvin NNP Minsky NNP Raj NNP Reddy NNP Roger NNP Schank NNP Alan NNP Turing NNP Wolfgang NNP Wahlster NNP Terry NNP Winograd NNP To TO some DT computer NN scientists NNS , , the DT phrase NN artificial JJ intelligence NN has VBZ acquired VBN somewhat RB of IN a DT bad JJ name NN due JJ to TO the DT large JJ discrepancy NN between IN what WP has VBZ been VBN achieved VBN so RB far RB in IN the DT field NN and CC some DT more JJR usual JJ notions NNS of IN intelligence NN . .
32 This DT problem NN has VBZ been VBN aggravated VBN by IN various JJ popular JJ science NN writers NNS and CC media NNS personalities NNS such JJ as IN Kevin NNP Warwick NNP whose WP$ work NN has VBZ raised VBN the DT expectations NNS of IN AI NNP research NN far RB beyond IN its PRP$ current JJ capabilities NNS . .
31 For IN this DT reason NN , , some DT researchers NNS working VBG on IN topics NNS related VBN to TO artificial JJ intelligence NN say VBP they PRP work VBP in IN cognitive JJ science NN , , informa NN ti NNS cs NNS , , statistical JJ inference NN or CC information NN enginee NN ring NN . .
24 However RB , , progress NN has VBZ in IN fact NN been VBN made VBN , , and CC AI NNP is VBZ today NN routinely RB employed VBN in IN thousands NNS of IN industrial JJ systems NNS around IN the DT world NN . .
19 See VB Raj NNP Reddy NNP ' ' s POS AAAI JJ paper NN for IN a DT huge JJ review NN of IN real-world NN AI JJ systems NNS in IN deployment NN today NN . .
52 Resources NNS Further RB reading VBG Non-fiction JJ Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP : : A DT Modern NNP Approach NNP by IN Stuart NNP J NNP . . Russell NNP and CC Peter NNP Norvig NNP Godel NNP , , Escher NNP , , Bach NNP : : An DT Eternal NNP Golden NNP Braid NNP by IN Douglas NNP R NNP . . Hofstadter NNP Shadows NNP of IN the DT Mind NNP and CC The DT Emperor NNP ' ' s POS New NNP Mind NNP by IN Roger NNP Penrose NNP Consciousness NNP Explained VBN by IN Dennett NNP . .
69 Rosie NNP and CC other JJ robots NNS from IN The DT Jetsons NNP Mike NNP in IN The DT Moon NNP is VBZ a DT Harsh NNP Mistress NNP by IN Robert NNP A NNP . . Heinlein NNP William NNP Gibson NNP ' ' s POS Neuromancer NNP Isaac NNP Asimov's NNP I PRP , , Robot NNP series NN , , introducing VBG the DT famous JJ Three CD Laws NNPS of IN Robotics NNP , , is VBZ often RB considered VBN to TO be VB the DT most RBS accurate JJ fictional JJ depiction NN of IN AI JJ AI JJ related JJ organizations NNS American JJ Association NNP for IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www NN . . a DT aai JJ . . org NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
14 European JJ Coordinating NNP Committee NNP for IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . eccai NN . . org NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
13 The DT Association NNP for IN Computational NNP Linguistics NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www1.cs IN . . columbia NNP . . edu/~acl NNP \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
12 Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP Student NNP Union NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . dotmotive JJ . . com/~aisu NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
17 German JJ Research NNP Center NNP for IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP , , DFKI NNP GmbH NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www NN . . dfki NN . . de NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
14 Association NNP for IN Uncertainty NNP in IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . auai NN . . org NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
12 Singularity NNP Institute NNP for IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . singinst NN . . org NN -RRB- -RRB-
15 Sources NNS John NNP McCarthy NNP : : Proposal NNP for IN the DT Dartmouth NNP Summer NNP Research NNP Project NNP On IN Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP . .
12 -LRB- -LRB- 2 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://www-formal JJ . . stanford NN . . edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB-
8 See VB also RB Important JJ publications NNS in IN artificial JJ intelligence NN . .
51 Philosophy NNP functionalism NN simulated VBD consciousness NN Searle NNP ' ' s POS Chinese JJ room NN consciousness NN Logic NNP semantics NNS Science NNP cognitive JJ science NN computer NN science NN cybernetics NNS psychology NN Applications NNS artificial JJ intelligence NN projects NNS artificial JJ intelligence NN agent NN bio-inspired JJ computing NN Uncategorised JJ Collective JJ intelligence NN - - the DT idea NN that IN a DT relatively RB large JJ number NN of IN people NNS co-operating NN in IN one CD process NN can MD lead VB to TO reliable JJ action NN . .
49 Quantum NNP mind NN - - the DT idea NN that IN large-scale JJ quantum NN coherence NN is VBZ necessary JJ to TO understand VB the DT brain NN . . the DT Singularity NNP - - a DT time NN at IN which WDT technological JJ progress NN accelerates VBZ beyond IN the DT ability NN of IN current-day JJ human JJ beings NNS to TO understand VB it PRP , , or CC the DT point NN in IN time NN of IN the DT emergence NN of IN smarter-than-human JJ intelligence NN . .
37 Mindpixel NNP - - A DT project NN to TO collect VB simple JJ true JJ \/ / false JJ assertions NNS and CC collaboratively RB validate JJ them PRP with IN the DT aim NN of IN using VBG them PRP as IN a DT body NN of IN human JJ common JJ sense NN knowledge NN that WDT can MD be VB utilised VBN by IN a DT machine NN . .
33 Game NNP programming NN AI NNP artificial JJ consciousness NN truth NN maintenance NN systems NNS - - by IN Gerald NNP Jay NNP Sussman NNP and CC Richard NNP Stallman NNP External NNP links NNS -LRB- -LRB- see VBP also RB # # AI-R , elated JJ Organizations NNPS -RRB- -RRB- Programming:AI NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://wikibooks VBZ . . org/wiki/Programming:A NN I PRP -RRB- -RRB-
4 @ @ Wikibooks NNP . . org .
16 University NNP of IN Berkeley NNP AI NNP Resources NNPS -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . cs NNP . . berkeley NNP . . edu/~russell/ai NNP . . html NNP -RRB- -RRB-
35 linking VBG to TO about IN 869 CD other JJ WWW JJ pages NNS about IN AI NNP AI NNP Depot NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://ai-depot.com JJ \/ / -RRB- -RRB- - - community NN discussion NN , , news NN , , and CC articles NNS Loebner NNP Prize NNP website NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . loebner NN . . net/Prizef/loebner-prize NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB-
26 AIWiki NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://purl JJ . . net/net/AIWiki NNP -RRB- -RRB- - - a DT wiki NN devoted VBN to TO AI NNP . . AIAWiki NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://ai JJ . . squeakydolphin.com NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB- - - AI JJ algorithms NNS and CC research NN . .
12 AI JJ web NN category NN on IN Open NNP Directory NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . dmoz.org/Computers/Artificial_Intelligence NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
7 Mindpixel NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . mindpixel.com NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
21 '' '' The DT Pla NNP net NN ' ' s POS Largest NNP Artificial NNP Intelligence NNP Effort NNP '' '' OpenMind NNP CommonSense NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://commonsense NN . . media.mit NN . . edu/cgi-bin/search.cgi NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
20 '' '' Teaching NNP computers VBZ the DT stuff NN we PRP all DT know VBP '' '' Artificially NNP Intelligent NNP Ouija NNP Board NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . bitesizeinc.net/index NN . . php/ouija.html NN -RRB- -RRB-
14 - - creative JJ example NN of IN human-like JJ AI NNP Artificial NNP Life NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . ifi.unizh.ch/ailab NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
18 - - AI JJ Lab NNP , , Zurich NNP Heuristics NNP and CC AI NNP in IN finance NN and CC investment NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . geocities.com/francorbusetti NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
26 SourceForge NN Open NNP Source NN AI JJ projects NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://sourceforge JJ . . net/softwaremap/trove_list NN . . php NN ? ? form_cat=133 NNS -RRB- -RRB- - - 1139 CD projects NNS Retrieved VBN from IN '' '' http://en JJ . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence NNP '' ''
6 Categories NNS : : Artificial NNP intelligence NN |  Science Science
110 Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP Order NNP : : 16th JJ President NNP Term NNP of IN Office NNP : : March NNP 4 CD , , 1861 CD - - April NNP 15 CD , , 1865 CD Predecessor NNP : : James NNP Buchanan NNP Successor NNP : : Andrew NNP Johnson NNP Date NNP of IN Birth NNP : : February NNP 12 CD , , 1809 CD Place NNP of IN Birth NNP : : Hardin NNP County NNP , , Kentucky NNP -LRB- -LRB- site NN now RB in IN LaRue NNP Count NNP y NN -RRB- -RRB- First NNP Lady NNP : : Mary NNP Todd NNP Lincoln NNP Profession NNP : : lawyer NN Political NNP Party NNP : : Republican NNP Vice NNP President NNP : : Hannibal NNP Hamlin NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1861-1865 CD -RRB- -RRB- Andrew NNP Johnson NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1865 CD -RRB- -RRB- Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- February NNP 12 CD , , 1809 CD April NNP 15 CD , , 1865 CD -RRB- -RRB- was VBD the DT 16th JJ -LRB- -LRB- 1861-1865 CD -RRB- -RRB- President NNP of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , and CC the DT first JJ President NNP from IN the DT Republican NNP Party NNP . .
12 As IN an DT anti-slavery JJ abolitionist NN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS election NN polarized VBD the DT nation NN . .
34 In IN his PRP$ effort NN to TO preserve VB the DT Union NNP during IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP , , which WDT began VBD at IN the DT outset NN of IN his PRP$ presidency NN , , Lincoln NNP assumed VBD more JJR power NN than IN any DT earlier JJR president NN in IN U.S NNP . . history NN . .
55 Taking VBG a DT broad JJ view NN of IN the DT president NN ' ' s POS war NN powers NNS , , he PRP proclaimed VBD a DT block NN ade NN , , suspended VBD the DT writ NN of IN habeas NNS corpus JJ for IN anti DT - - Union NNP activity NN , , spent VBD money NN without IN congressional JJ authorization NN , , and CC personally RB directed VBN the DT war NN effort NN , , ultimately RB leading VBG the DT Union NNP forces NNS to TO victory NN over IN the DT rebel NN Confederacy NN . .
32 Lincoln NNP was VBD an DT extremely RB deft JJ politician NN , , emerging VBG as IN a DT wartime NN leader NN skilled VBD at IN balancing VBG competing VBG considerations NNS , , and CC adept NN at IN getting VBG rival JJ groups NNS to TO work VB together RB toward IN a DT common JJ goal NN . .
47 His PRP$ leadership NN qualities NNS were VBD evident JJ in IN his PRP$ handling NN of IN the DT border NN slave NN states NNS at IN the DT beginning NN of IN the DT fighting NN , , in IN his PRP$ defeat NN of IN a DT congressional JJ attempt NN to TO reorganize VB his PRP$ cabinet NN in IN 1862 CD , , and CC his PRP$ defusing NN of IN the DT peace NN issue NN in IN the DT 1864 CD presidential JJ campaign NN . .
31 Lincoln NNP had VBD a DT lasting JJ influence NN on IN U.S NNP . . political JJ institutions NNS , , most JJS importantly RB in IN setting VBG the DT precedent NN of IN strong JJ , , perhaps RB sweeping VBG , , executive JJ powers NNS in IN time NN of IN national JJ emergency NN . .
47 His PRP$ assassination NN so RB shortly RB after IN the DT end NN of IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP left VBD him PRP something NN of IN a DT martyr NN , , his PRP$ reputation NN forever RB sealed VBN by IN the DT victory NN he PRP won VBD , , without IN the DT tarnish NN which WDT may MD have VB resulted VBN from IN having VBG to TO deal VB with IN the DT messy JJ aftermath NN of IN the DT war NN . .
14 He PRP is VBZ commonly RB recognized VBN as IN having VBG been VBN among IN the DT best JJS U.S NNP . . presidents NNS . .
105 1 CD Early JJ life NN 2 CD Early RB political JJ career NN 3 CD Law NN practice NN 4 CD Toward NNP the DT Presidency NNP 5 CD Presidency NNP 5.1 CD Lincoln NNP on IN Slavery NNP 5.2 CD Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP 5.3 CD Gettysburg NNP Address NNP 5.4 CD The DT Civil NNP War NNP 5.5 CD Cabinet NNP 5.6 CD Supreme NNP Court NNP appointments NNS 6 CD Assassination NN 7 CD Lincoln NNP family NN 8 CD Lincoln NNP exhumed VBD 9 CD Lincoln NNP memorialized VBD 10 CD Quotes NNP 11 CD Related JJ articles NNS 12 CD Further RB reading VBG 13 CD External NNP links NNS Early JJ life NN Lincoln NNP was VBD born VBN on IN February NNP 12 CD , , 1809 CD , , on IN a DT farm NN in IN Hardin NNP County NNP , , Kentucky NNP -LRB- -LRB- now RB in IN LaRue NNP Co NNP . . , , three CD miles NNS -LRB- -LRB- 5 CD km NN -RRB- -RRB- south NN of IN the DT town NN of IN Hodgenville NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , to TO Thomas NNP Lincoln NNP and CC Nancy NNP Hanks NNP . .
9 Lincoln NNP moved VBD at IN a DT young JJ age NN to TO Indiana NNP . .
33 After IN economic JJ and CC land-title NN difficulties NNS in IN Indiana NNP the DT family NN moved VBD to TO central JJ Illinois NNP in IN 1830 CD to TO settle VB government NN land NN along IN the DT Sangamon NNP River NNP on IN a DT site NN selected VBN by IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS father NN . .
16 The DT following JJ winter NN was VBD especially RB brutal JJ , , and CC the DT family NN nearly RB moved VBD back RB to TO Indiana NNP . .
42 When WRB his PRP$ father NN relocated VBD the DT family NN to TO a DT nearby JJ site NN the DT following JJ year NN , , the DT 22-year-old JJ Lincoln NNP struck VBD out RP on IN his PRP$ own JJ , , canoeing VBG down RP the DT Sangamon NNP to TO homestead RB on IN his PRP$ own JJ in IN Menard NNP County NNP near IN the DT village NN of IN New NNP Salem NNP . .
30 Later RB that DT year NN , , accompanied VBN by IN friends NNS on IN a DT flatboat NN , , he PRP floated VBD down RP the DT Sangamon NNP to TO the DT Illinois NNP River NNP , , then RB down IN the DT Mississippi NNP River NNP to TO New NNP Orleans NNP . .
16 He PRP began VBD his PRP$ political JJ career NN in IN 1832 CD with IN a DT campaign NN for IN the DT Illinois NNP General NNP Assembly NNP . .
23 The DT centerpiece NN of IN his PRP$ platform NN was VBD the DT undertaking NN of IN navigational JJ improvements NNS on IN the DT Sangamon NNP that WDT opened VBD up RP the DT river NN to TO steamboat VB traffic NN . .
48 He PRP served VBD as IN a DT captain NN in IN a DT company NN of IN the DT Illinois NNP militia NN drawn VBN from IN New NNP Salem NNP during IN the DT Black NNP Hawk NNP War NNP , , writing VBG after IN being VBG elected VBN by IN his PRP$ peers NNS that IN he PRP had VBD not RB had VBN '' '' any DT such JJ success NN in IN life NN which WDT gave VBD him PRP so RB much JJ satisfaction NN . . '' ''
12 He PRP later RB tried VBD his PRP$ hand NN at IN several JJ business NN and CC political JJ ventures NNS . .
21 Admitted NNP to TO the DT Illinois NNP bar NN , , he PRP was VBD highly RB regarded VBN as IN a DT practicing NN lawyer NN , , and CC became VBD steadily RB more JJR prosperous JJ . .
40 Lincoln NNP served VBD four CD terms NNS in IN the DT Illinois NNP State NNP Legislature NNP , , was VBD briefly RB elected VBN to TO Congress NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1846 CD -RRB- -RRB- , , and CC had VBD a DT successful JJ law NN practice NN in IN Illinois NNP both CC before IN and CC after IN his PRP$ single JJ term NN in IN the DT House NNP of IN Representatives NNPS . .
39 Early RB political JJ career NN Lincoln NNP in IN 1846 CD or CC 1847 CD First RB elected VBN to TO the DT House NNP of IN Representatives NNPS , , Lincoln NNP spent VBD most JJS of IN his PRP$ time NN in IN Washington NNP , , DC NNP alone RB and CC made VBD a DT less JJR than IN spectacular JJ impression NN on IN his PRP$ fellow JJ politicians NNS . .
42 He PRP used VBD his PRP$ office NN as IN an DT opportunity NN to TO speak VB out RP against IN the DT war NN with IN Mexico NNP , , which WDT he PRP attributed VBD to TO President NNP Polk NNP ' ' s POS desire NN for IN '' '' military JJ glory NN - - that IN attractive JJ rainbow NN , , that WDT rises VBZ in IN showers NNS of IN blood NN . . '' ''
18 When WRB his PRP$ term NN ended VBD , , the DT incoming NN Taylor NNP administration NN offered VBD him PRP the DT governorship NN of IN the DT Oregon NNP Territory NNP . .
37 He PRP declined VBD , , returning VBG instead RB to TO Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP where WRB , , although IN he PRP remained VBD active JJ in IN Whig NNP Party NNP affairs NNS in IN the DT state NN , , he PRP turned VBD most JJS of IN his PRP$ energies NNS to TO making VBG a DT living NN at IN the DT bar NN . .
32 Law NN practice NN Lincoln NNP acquired VBD prominence NN in IN Illinois NNP legal JJ circles NNS by IN the DT mid JJ 1850s NNS , , especially RB through IN his PRP$ involvement NN in IN litigation NN involving VBG competing VBG transportation NN interests NNS both CC the DT river NN barges NNS and CC the DT railroads NNS . .
26 He PRP represented VBD the DT Alton NNP & & Sangamon NNP Railroad NNP , , for IN example NN , , in IN an DT 1851 CD dispute NN with IN one CD of IN its PRP$ shareholders NNS , , James NNP A NNP . . Barret NNP . .
25 Barret NNP had VBD refused VBN to TO pay VB the DT balance NN on IN his PRP$ pledge NN to TO that DT corporation NN on IN the DT ground NN that IN it PRP had VBD changed VBN its PRP$ originally RB planned VBN route NN . .
60 Lincoln NNP argued VBD that IN as IN a DT matter NN of IN law NN a DT corporation NN is VBZ not RB bound VBN by IN its PRP$ original JJ charter NN when WRB that DT charter NN can MD be VB amended VBN in IN the DT public JJ interest NN , , that IN the DT newer JJR proposed VBD Alton NNP & & Sangamon NNP route NN was VBD superior JJ and CC less RBR expensive JJ , , and CC that IN accordingly RB the DT corporation NN had VBD a DT right NN to TO sue VB Mr NNP . . Barret NNP for IN his PRP$ delinquent JJ payment NN . .
25 He PRP won VBD this DT case NN , , and CC the DT decision NN by IN the DT Illinois NNP Supreme NNP Court NNP was VBD eventually RB cited VBN by IN several JJ other JJ courts NNS throughout IN the DT United NNP States NNPS . .
29 Another DT important JJ example NN of IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS skills NNS as IN a DT railroad NN lawyer NN was VBD a DT lawsuit NN over IN a DT tax NN exemption NN that IN the DT state NN granted VBD to TO the DT Illinois NNP Central NNP Railroad NNP . .
26 McLean NNP County NNP argued VBD that IN the DT state NN had VBD no DT authority NN to TO grant VB such JJ an DT exemption NN , , and CC it PRP sought VBD to TO impose VB taxes NNS on IN the DT railroad NN notwithstanding NN . .
22 In IN January NNP 1856 CD , , the DT Illinois NNP Supreme NNP Court NNP delivered VBD its PRP$ opinion NN upholding VBG the DT tax NN exemption NN , , accepting VBG Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS arguments NNS . .
34 Toward NNP the DT Presidency NNP While IN Lincoln NNP is VBZ usually RB portrayed VBN bearded VBN , , he PRP only RB grew VBD a DT beard JJ the DT last JJ few JJ years NNS of IN his PRP$ life NN , , perhaps RB at IN the DT suggestion NN of IN 11 CD year NN old JJ Grace NNP Bedell NNP . .
43 The DT Kansas-Nebraska NNP Act NNP of IN 1854 CD , , which WDT opened VBD the DT named VBN territories NNS to TO slavery VB - - thus RB erasing VBG the DT limits NNS on IN slavery NN ' ' s POS spread NN which WDT had VBD been VBN part NN of IN the DT Missouri NNP Compromise NNP of IN 1820 CD - - also RB helped VBD draw VB Lincoln NNP back RB into IN electoral JJ politics NNS . .
30 It PRP was VBD a DT speech NN against IN Kansas-Nebraska NNP , , on IN October NNP 16 CD , , 1854 CD in IN Peoria NNP , , that WDT caused VBD Lincoln NNP to TO stand VB out RP among IN the DT other JJ free-soil NN orators NNS of IN the DT day NN . .
42 During IN his PRP$ unsuccessful JJ 1858 CD campaign NN for IN the DT United NNP States NNPS Senate NNP against IN Stephen NNP A NNP . . Douglas NNP , , Lincoln NNP debated VBD Douglas NNP in IN a DT series NN of IN events NNS which WDT represented VBD a DT national JJ discussion NN on IN the DT issues NNS that WDT were VBD about IN to TO split VB the DT nation NN in IN two CD . .
20 The DT Lincoln-Douglas NNP debates VBZ presaged VBN the DT Presidential NNP election NN of IN 1860 CD , , in IN which WDT Douglas NNP and CC Lincoln NNP were VBD once RB again RB opponents NNS . .
26 On IN November NNP 6 CD , , 1860 CD , , Lincoln NNP was VBD elected VBN as IN the DT 16th JJ President NNP of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , the DT first JJ Republican NNP to TO hold VB that DT office NN . .
23 Shortly RB after IN his PRP$ election NN , , the DT South NNP made VBD it PRP clear JJ that IN secession NN was VBD inevitable JJ , , which WDT greatly RB increased VBN tension NN across IN the DT nation NN . .
46 President-elect NNP Lincoln NNP survived VBD an DT assassination NN attempt NN in IN Baltimore NNP , , Maryland NNP , , and CC on IN February NNP 23 CD , , 1861 CD arrived VBD secretly RB in IN disguise NN to TO Washington NNP , , DC NNP . . The DT South NNP ridiculed VBD Lincoln NNP for IN this DT seemingly RB cowardly JJ act NN , , but CC the DT efforts NNS at IN security NN may MD have VB been VBN prudent JJ . .
43 Presidency NNP At IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS inauguration NN on IN March NNP 4 CD , , 1861 CD , , the DT Turners NNPS formed VBD Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS bodyguard NN ; ; and CC a DT sizable JJ garrison NN of IN federal JJ troops NNS was VBD also RB present JJ , , ready JJ to TO protect VB the DT president NN and CC the DT capital NN from IN rebel NN invasion NN . .
71 Lincoln NNP on IN Slavery NNP Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS actual JJ position NN on IN freeing VBG enslaved VBN African-Americans NNPS is VBZ controversial JJ today NN , , despite IN the DT frequency NN and CC clarity NN with IN which WDT he PRP stated VBD it PRP both DT before IN his PRP$ election NN to TO president NN -LRB- -LRB- i NNP . . e NN . . Lincoln-Douglas NNP Debates NNP of IN 1858 CD -RRB- -RRB- and CC after IN -LRB- -LRB- see VB Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS First NNP Inaugural NNP -RRB- -RRB- He PRP stated VBD his PRP$ position NN forcefully RB and CC succinctly RB in IN a DT letter NN to TO Horace NNP Greeley NNP of IN August NNP 22 CD , , 1862 CD . .
6 I PRP would MD save VB the DT Union NNP . .
11 I PRP would MD save VB it PRP the DT shortest JJS way NN under IN the DT Constitution NNP . .
23 The DT sooner RBR the DT national JJ authority NN can MD be VB restored VBN ; ; the DT nearer JJR the DT Union NNP will MD be VB '' '' the DT Union NNP as IN it PRP was VBD . . '' ''
28 If IN there EX be VB those DT who WP would MD not RB save VB the DT Union NNP , , unless IN they PRP could MD at IN the DT same JJ time NN save IN slavery NN , , I PRP do VBP not RB agree VB with IN them PRP . .
27 If IN there EX be VB those DT who WP would MD not RB save VB the DT Union NNP unless IN they PRP could MD at IN the DT same JJ time NN destroy VB slavery NN , , I PRP do VBP not RB agree VB with IN them PRP . .
23 My PRP$ paramount NN object NN in IN this DT struggle NN is VBZ to TO save VB the DT Union NNP , , and CC is VBZ not RB either RB to TO save VB or CC to TO destroy VB slavery NN . .
50 If IN I PRP could MD save VB the DT Union NNP without IN freeing VBG any DT slave NN I PRP would MD do VB it PRP , , and CC if IN I PRP could MD save VB it PRP by IN freeing VBG all PDT the DT slaves NNS I PRP would MD do VB it PRP ; ; and CC if IN I PRP could MD save VB it PRP by IN freeing VBG some DT and CC leaving VBG others NNS alone RB I PRP would MD also RB do VB that DT . .
43 What WP I PRP do VBP about IN slavery NN , , and CC the DT colored JJ race NN , , I PRP do VBP because IN I PRP believe VBP it PRP helps VBZ to TO save VB the DT Union NNP ; ; and CC what WP I PRP forbear VBD , , I PRP forbear VBD because IN I PRP do VBP not RB believe VB it PRP would MD help VB to TO save VB the DT Union NNP . .
32 I PRP shall MD do VB less JJR whenever IN I PRP shall MD believe VB what WP I PRP am VBP doing VBG hurts VBZ the DT cause NN , , and CC I PRP shall MD do VB more JJR whenever IN I PRP shall MD believe VB doing VBG more JJR will MD help VB the DT cause NN . .
29 I PRP shall MD try VB to TO correct VB errors NNS when WRB shown VBN to TO be VB errors NNS ; ; and CC I PRP shall MD adopt VB new JJ views NNS so RB fast RB as IN they PRP shall MD appear VB to TO be VB true JJ views NNS . .
32 I PRP have VBP here RB stated VBN my PRP$ purpose NN according VBG to TO my PRP$ view NN of IN official JJ duty NN ; ; and CC I PRP intend VBP no DT modification NN of IN my PRP$ oft-expressed JJ personal JJ wish NN that IN all DT men NNS everywhere RB could MD be VB free JJ . .
26 However RB , , at IN the DT time NN of IN the DT writing VBG this DT letter NN , , Lincoln NNP was VBD already RB leaning VBG towards IN emancipation NN , , which WDT would MD lead VB to TO the DT Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP . .
72 Also RB revealing VBG was VBD his PRP$ letter NN a DT year NN later RB to TO James NNP Conkling NNP of IN August NNP 26 CD , , 1863 CD , , which WDT included VBD the DT following JJ excerpt NN : : There EX was VBD more JJR than IN a DT year NN and CC a DT half NN of IN trial NN to TO suppress VB the DT rebellion NN before IN the DT proclamation NN issued VBN , , the DT last JJ one CD hundred CD days NNS of IN which WDT passed VBD under IN an DT explicit JJ notice NN that IN it PRP was VBD coming VBG , , unless IN averted VBN by IN those DT in IN revolt NN , , returning VBG to TO their PRP$ allegiance NN . .
18 The DT war NN has VBZ certainly RB progressed VBN as IN favorably RB for IN us PRP , , since IN the DT issue NN of IN proclamation NN as IN before RB . .
79 I PRP know VBP , , as RB fully RB as IN one CD can MD know VB the DT opinions NNS of IN others NNS , , that IN some DT of IN the DT commanders NNS of IN our PRP$ armies NNS in IN the DT field NN who WP have VBP given VBN us PRP our IN most RBS important JJ successes NNS believe VBP the DT emancipation NN policy NN and CC the DT use NN of IN the DT colored JJ troops NNS constitute VBP the DT heaviest JJS blow NN yet RB dealt VBN to TO the DT Rebellion NNP , , and CC that IN at IN least JJS one CD of IN these DT important JJ successes NNS could MD not RB have VB been VBN achieved VBN when WRB it PRP was VBD but CC for IN the DT aid NN of IN black JJ soldiers NNS . .
34 Among IN the DT commanders NNS holding VBG these DT views NNS are VBP some DT who WP have VBP never RB had VBN any DT affinity NN with IN what WP is VBZ called VBN abolitionism NN or CC with IN the DT Republican JJ party NN policies NNS but CC who WP held VBD them PRP purely RB as IN military JJ opinions NNS . .
36 I PRP submit VBP these DT opinions NNS as IN being VBG entitled VBN to TO some DT weight NN against IN the DT objections NNS often RB urged VBD that IN emancipation NN and CC arming NN the DT blacks NNS are VBP unwise JJ as IN military JJ measures NNS and CC were VBD not RB adopted VBN as IN such JJ in IN good JJ faith NN . .
10 You PRP say VBP you PRP will MD not RB fight VB to TO free JJ negroes NNS . .
15 Some DT of IN them PRP seem VBP willing JJ to TO fight VB for IN you PRP ; ; but CC , , no DT matter NN . .
10 Fight NNP you PRP , , then RB exclusively RB to TO save VB the DT Union NNP . .
14 I PRP issued VBD the DT proclamation NN on IN purpose NN to TO aid VB you PRP in IN saving VBG the DT Union NNP . .
41 Whenever IN you PRP shall MD have VB conquered VBN all DT resistance NN to TO the DT Union NNP , , if IN I PRP shall MD urge VB you PRP to TO continue VB fighting VBG , , it PRP will MD be VB an DT apt JJ time NN , , then RB , , for IN you PRP to TO declare VB you PRP will MD not RB fight VB to TO free JJ negroes NNS . .
34 I PRP thought VBD that IN in IN your PRP$ struggle NN for IN the DT Union NNP , , to TO whatever WDT extent NN the DT negroes NNS should MD cease VB helping VBG the DT enemy NN , , to TO that WDT extent NN it PRP weakened VBD the DT enemy NN in IN his PRP$ resistance NN to TO you PRP . .
5 Do VB you PRP think VB differently RB ? ?
29 I PRP thought VBD that IN whatever WDT negroes NNS can MD be VB got VBN to TO do VB as IN soldiers NNS , , leaves VBZ just RB so RB much RB less JJR for IN white JJ soldiers NNS to TO do VB , , in IN saving VBG the DT Union NNP . .
7 Does VBZ it PRP appear VB otherwise RB to TO you PRP ? ?
11 But CC negroes NNS , , like IN other JJ people NNS , , act NN upon IN motives NNS . .
17 Why WRB should MD they PRP do VB any DT thing NN for IN us PRP , , if IN we PRP will MD do VB nothing NN for IN them PRP ? ?
21 If IN they PRP stake VBP their PRP$ lives NNS for IN us PRP , , they PRP must MD be VB prompted VBN by IN the DT strongest JJS motiveeven FW the DT promise NN of IN freedom NN . .
10 And CC the DT promise NN being VBG made VBN , , must MD be VB kept VBN . .
22 Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP Lincoln NNP met VBD with IN his PRP$ Cabinet NNP for IN the DT first JJ reading NN of IN the DT Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP draft NN on IN July NNP 22 CD , , 1862 CD . .
31 He PRP later RB said VBD : : '' '' I PRP never RB , , in IN my PRP$ life NN , , felt VBD more RBR certain JJ that IN I PRP was VBD doing VBG right RB , , than IN I PRP do VBP in IN signing VBG this DT pap NN er NN . . '' ''
42 Lincoln NNP is VBZ often RB credited VBN with IN freeing VBG enslaved VBN African-Americans NNPS with IN the DT Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP , , though IN this DT only RB freed VBD the DT slaves NNS in IN areas NNS of IN the DT Confederacy NN not RB yet RB controlled VBN by IN the DT Union NNP ; ; in IN occupied JJ and CC northern JJ territories NNS , , slaves NNS were VBD not RB freed VBN . .
48 However RB , , the DT proclamation NN made VBD abolishing NN slavery NN in IN the DT rebel NN states NNS an DT official JJ war NN goal NN and CC it PRP did VBD become VB the DT impetus NN for IN the DT enactment NN of IN the DT 13th JJ and CC 14th JJ Amendments NNS of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS Constitution NNP which WDT respectively RB abolished VBD slavery NN and CC established VBD the DT federal JJ enforcement NN of IN civil JJ rights NNS . .
36 Gettysburg NNP Address NNP He PRP showed VBD tremendous JJ leadership NN to TO the DT Union NNP populace NN during IN the DT war NN as IN evidenced VBN by IN the DT Gettysburg NNP Address NNP , , a DT speech NN dedicating VBG a DT cemetery NN of IN Union NNP soldiers NNS from IN the DT Battle NNP of IN Gettysburg NNP in IN 1863 CD . .
8 While IN most JJS of IN the DT speakerse JJ . . g NN . .
49 Edward NNP Everettat NNP the DT event NN spoke VBD at IN length NN , , some DT for IN hours NNS , , Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS few JJ choice NN words NNS resonated VBN across IN the DT nation NN and CC across IN history NN , , defying VBG Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS own JJ prediction NN that IN '' '' The DT world NN will MD little VB note NN , , nor CC long RB remember VBP what WP we PRP say VBP here RB . . '' ''
28 While IN there EX is VBZ little JJ documentation NN of IN the DT other JJ speeches NNS of IN the DT day NN , , Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS address NN is VBZ regarded VBN as IN one CD of IN the DT great JJ speeches NNS in IN history NN . .
24 In IN tribute NN , , he PRP was VBD presented VBN with IN a DT Waltham NNP Watch NNP Company NNP Wm NNP Ellery NNP , , key JJ wind NN watch NN model NN 1857 CD , , serial JJ number JJ 67613 CD . .
24 The DT Civil NNP War NNP The DT war NN was VBD a DT source NN of IN constant JJ frustration NN for IN the DT president NN , , and CC it PRP occupied VBD nearly RB all DT of IN his PRP$ time NN . .
37 After IN repeated VBN difficulties NNS with IN General NNP George NNP McClellan NNP and CC a DT string NN of IN other JJ unsuccessful JJ commanding JJ generals NNS , , Lincoln NNP made VBD the DT fateful JJ decision NN to TO appoint VB a DT radical JJ and CC somewhat RB scandalous JJ army NN commander NN : : General NNP Ulysses NNP S NNP . . Grant NNP . .
19 Grant NNP would MD apply VB his PRP$ military JJ knowledge NN and CC leadership NN talents NNS to TO bring VB about RB the DT close NN of IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP . .
50 When WRB Richmond NNP , , the DT Confederate JJ capital NN , , was VBD at IN long JJ last JJ captured VBN , , Lincoln NNP went VBD there RB to TO make VB a DT public JJ gesture NN of IN sitting VBG at IN Jefferson NNP Davis NNP ' ' s POS own JJ desk NN , , symbolically RB saying VBG to TO the DT nation NN that IN the DT President NNP of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS held VBD authority NN over IN the DT entire JJ land NN . .
46 He PRP was VBD greeted VBN at IN the DT city NN as IN a DT conquering NN hero NN by IN freed VBN slaves NNS , , whose WP$ sentiments NNS were VBD epitomized VBN by IN one CD admirer NN ' ' s POS quote NN , , '' '' I PRP know VBP I PRP am VBP free JJ for IN I PRP have VBP seen VBN the DT face NN of IN Father NNP Abraham NNP and CC have VBP felt VBN him PRP . . '' ''
14 The DT reconstruction NN of IN the DT Union NNP weighed VBD heavy JJ on IN the DT President NNP ' ' s POS mind NN . .
17 He PRP was VBD determined VBN to TO take VB a DT course NN that WDT would MD not RB permanently RB alienate RB the DT former JJ Confederate JJ states NNS . .
43 '' '' Let VB ' ' em PRP up IN easy JJ , , '' '' he PRP told VBD his PRP$ assembled JJ military JJ leaders NNS Gen NNP . . Ulysses NNP S NNP . . Grant NNP , , Gen NNP . . William NNP T NNP . . Sherman NNP and CC Adm NNP . . David NNP Dixon NNP Porter NNP in IN an DT 1865 CD meeting NN on IN the DT steamer NN River NNP Queen NNP . .
20 In IN 1864 CD , , Lincoln NNP was VBD the DT first JJ and CC only RB President NNP to TO face VB a DT presidential JJ election NN during IN a DT civil JJ war NN . .
32 The DT long JJ war NN and CC the DT issue NN of IN emancipation NN appeared VBD to TO be VB severely RB hampering VBG his PRP$ prospects NNS and CC an DT electoral JJ defeat NN appeared VBD likely JJ against IN the DT Democratic JJ nominee NN and CC former JJ general JJ , , George NNP McClellan NNP . .
21 However RB , , a DT series NN of IN timely RB Union NNP victories NNS shortly RB before RB election NN day NN changed VBD the DT situation NN dramatically RB and CC Lincoln NNP was VBD reelected VBN . .
31 During IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP , , Lincoln NNP held VBD powers NNS no DT previous JJ president NN had VBD wielded VBN ; ; he PRP suspended VBD the DT writ NN of IN habeas NNS corpus NN and CC frequently RB imprisoned VBD Southern NNP spies NNS and CC sympathizers NNS without IN trial NN . .
10 On IN the DT other JJ hand NN , , he PRP often RB commuted VBD executions NNS . .
35 Just RB days NNS before IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS assassination NN , , the DT war NN ended VBD with IN Union NNP victory NN on IN April NNP 9 CD , , 1865 CD , , when WRB Confederate NNP General NNP Robert NNP E NNP . . Lee NNP surrendered VBD at IN Appomattox NNP Court NNP House NNP in IN Virginia NNP . .
18 The DT defeat NN of IN the DT Confederacy NNP paved VBD the DT way NN for IN the DT abolishment NN of IN slavery NN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS . .
23 The DT two CD men NNS planned VBD matters NNS of IN reconstruction NN , , and CC it PRP was VBD evident JJ to TO all DT that IN they PRP held VBD each DT other JJ in IN high JJ regard NN . .
25 During IN their PRP$ last JJ meeting NN , , on IN April NNP 14 CD , , 1865 CD -LRB- -LRB- Good JJ Friday NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , Lincoln NNP invited VBD Grant NNP to TO a DT social JJ engagement NN that IN evening NN . .
18 Grant NNP declined VBD -LRB- -LRB- his PRP$ wife NN was VBD not RB eager JJ to TO spend VB time NN with IN Mary NNP Todd NNP Lincol NNP n NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
39 Without IN the DT General NNP and CC his PRP$ wife NN , , or CC his PRP$ bodyguard NN Ward NNP Hill NNP Lamon NNP , , to TO whom WP he PRP related VBD his PRP$ famous JJ dream NN of IN his PRP$ own JJ assassination NN , , the DT Lincolns NNP left VBD to TO attend VB a DT play NN at IN Ford NNP ' ' s POS Theater NNP . .
20 The DT play NN was VBD Our PRP$ American JJ Cousin NNP , , a DT musical JJ comedy NN by IN the DT British JJ writer NN Tom NNP Taylor NNP -LRB- -LRB- 1817-1880 CD -RRB- -RRB- . .
50 As IN Lincoln NNP sat VBD in IN the DT balcony NN , , John NNP Wilkes NNP Booth NNP , , a DT well-known JJ actor NN and CC Southern NNP sympathizer NN from IN Virginia NNP , , crept VB up RP behind IN Lincoln NNP in IN his PRP$ State NNP Box NNP and CC aimed VBD a DT single-shot JJ , , round-slug JJ . . 44 CD caliber NN Deringer NNP at IN the DT President NNP ' ' s POS head NN , , firing NN at IN point-blank JJ range NN . .
56 He PRP shouted VBD '' '' Sic JJ semper NN tyrannis NN ! ! '' '' -LRB- -LRB- Latin NNP : : '' '' Th NNP us PRP always RB to TO tyrants NNS , , '' '' and CC Virginia NNP ' ' s POS state NN motto NN ; ; some DT accounts NNS say VBP he PRP added VBD '' '' The DT South NNP is VBZ avenged JJ ! ! '' '' -RRB- -RRB- and CC jumped VBD from IN the DT balcony NN to TO the DT stage NN below RB , , breaking VBG his PRP$ leg NN in IN the DT fall NN . .
51 Booth NNP and CC several JJ other JJ conspirators NNS had VBD planned VBN to TO kill VB a DT number NN of IN other JJ government NN officials NNS at IN the DT same JJ time NN , , but CC for IN various JJ reasons NNS Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS was VBD the DT only JJ assassination NN actually RB carried VBD out RP -LRB- -LRB- although IN Secretary NNP of IN State NNP William NNP H NNP . . Seward NNP was VBD badly RB injured VBN by IN an DT assailant NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
43 Booth NNP managed VBD to TO limp VB to TO his PRP$ horse NN and CC escape VB , , and CC the DT mortally-wounded JJ president NN was VBD taken VBN to TO a DT house NN across IN the DT street NN , , now RB called VBN the DT Petersen NNP House NNP , , where WRB he PRP lay VBD in IN a DT coma NN for IN some DT time NN before IN he PRP quietly RB expired VBD . .
16 Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP was VBD officially RB pronounced VBD dead NNP at IN 7:21 CD AM NNP , , in IN April NNP 15 CD , , 1865 CD . .
16 Booth NNP and CC several JJ of IN his PRP$ conspirators NNS were VBD eventually RB captured VBN , , and CC either DT hanged VBN or CC imprisoned VBN . .
12 Booth NNP himself PRP was VBD shot VBN when WRB discovered VBN holed VBZ up RP in IN a DT barn NN . .
64 Four CD people NNS were VBD tried VBN by IN military JJ tribunal NN and CC hanged VBN for IN the DT assassination NN plot NN -LRB- -LRB- David NNP Her NNP old JJ , , George NNP Atzerodt NNP , , Lewis NNP Powell NNP -LRB- -LRB- aka DT Lewis NNP Payne NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , and CC Mary NNP Surratt NNP , , the DT first JJ woman NN ever RB executed VBN by IN the DT United NNP States NNPS government NN . . -RRB- -RRB- Three CD people NNS were VBD sentenced VBN to TO life NN imprisonment NN -LRB- -LRB- Michael NNP O'Laughlin NNP , , Samuel NNP Arnold NNP , , and CC Samuel NNP Mudd NNP -RRB- -RRB- . .
9 Edman NNP Spangler NNP was VBD sentenced VBN to TO six CD years NNS imprisonment NN . .
13 John NNP Surratt NNP , , tried VBD later RB by IN a DT civilian JJ court NN , , was VBD acquitted VBN . .
37 The DT fairness NN of IN the DT convictions NNS , , particularly RB of IN Mary NNP Surratt NNP , , have VBP been VBN called VBN into IN question NN , , and CC there EX are VBP doubts NNS as IN to TO the DT exact JJ degree NN of IN her PRP$ involvement NN , , if IN any DT , , in IN the DT conspiracy NN . .
27 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS funeral NN train NN carried VBD his PRP$ remains NNS , , as RB well RB as IN 300 CD mourners NNS and CC the DT casket NN of IN his PRP$ son NN William NNP , , 1,654 CD miles NNS to TO Illinois NNP . .
23 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS body NN was VBD carried VBN by IN train NN in IN a DT grand JJ funeral JJ procession NN through IN several JJ states NNS on IN its PRP$ way NN back RB to TO Illinois NNP . .
42 The DT nation NN mourned VBD a DT man NN who WP many JJ viewed VBD as IN the DT savior NN of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , and CC protector NN and CC defender NN of IN what WP Lincoln NNP himself PRP called VBD '' '' the DT government NN of IN the DT people NNS , , by IN the DT people NNS , , and CC for IN the DT people NNS . . '' ''
22 Critics NNS say VBP that IN in IN fact NN the DT Confederates NNS were VBD the DT ones NNS defending VBG the DT right JJ to TO self-governance NN and CC Lincoln NNP was VBD suppressing VBG that DT right NN . .
19 They PRP further RB insist VBP that IN Lincoln NNP only RB preserved VBD the DT Union NNP in IN a DT geographical JJ sense NN while IN destroying VBG its PRP$ voluntary JJ nature NN . .
12 Lincoln NNP family NN President NNP Lincoln NNP and CC Mary NNP Todd NNP Lincoln NNP had VBD four CD sons NNS . .
6 Only RB one CD survived VBN into IN adulthood NN . .
26 Robert NNP Todd NNP Lincoln NNP : : b NN . . August NNP 1 CD , , 1843 CD in IN Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP - - d VBN . . July NNP 26 CD , , 1926 CD in IN Manchester NNP , , Vermont NNP . .
79 Edward NNP Baker NNP Lincoln NNP : : b NN . . March NNP 10 CD , , 1846 CD in IN Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP - - d VBN . . February NNP 1 CD , , 1850 CD in IN Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP William NNP Wallace NNP Lincoln NNP : : b NN . . December NNP 21 CD , , 1850 CD in IN Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP - - d VBN . . February NNP 20 CD , , 1862 CD in IN Washington NNP , , D.C NNP . . Thomas NNP '' '' Tad NNP '' '' Lincoln NNP : : b NN . . April NNP 4 CD , , 1853 CD in IN Springfield NNP , , Illinois NNP - - d VBN . . July NNP 16 CD , , 1871 CD in IN Chicago NNP , , Illinois NNP . .
6 Lincoln NNP has VBZ no DT living VBG descendants NNS . .
29 Lincoln NNP exhumed VBD Lincoln NNP was VBD buried VBN in IN Oak NNP Ridge NNP Cemetery NNP in IN Springfield NNP , , where WRB a DT 177-foot-tall JJ granite NN tomb NN surmounted VBN with IN several JJ bronze NN statues NNS of IN Lincoln NNP was VBD constructed VBN by IN 1874 CD . .
24 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS wife NN and CC three CD of IN his PRP$ four CD sons NNS are VBP also RB buried VBN there EX -LRB- -LRB- Robert NNP is VBZ buried VBN in IN Arlington NNP National NNP Cemetery NNP -RRB- -RRB- . .
22 In IN the DT years NNS following VBG his PRP$ death NN , , attempts NNS were VBD made VBN to TO steal VB Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS body NN and CC hold VB it PRP for IN ransom NN . .
28 Around IN 1900 CD , , Robert NNP Todd NNP Lincoln NNP decided VBD that IN , , in IN order NN to TO prevent VB body NN theft NN , , it PRP was VBD necessary JJ to TO build VB a DT permanent JJ crypt NN for IN his PRP$ father NN . .
25 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS coffin NN would MD be VB encased VBN in IN concrete JJ several JJ feet NNS thick JJ , , surrounded VBN by IN a DT cage NN , , and CC buried VBN beneath IN a DT rock NN slab NN . .
24 On IN September NNP 26 CD , , 1901 CD , , Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS body NN was VBD exhumed VBN so RB that IN it PRP could MD be VB reinterred VBN in IN the DT newly RB built VBN crypt NN . .
28 However RB , , those DT present JJ -LRB- -LRB- there EX were VBD 23 CD of IN them PRP , , including VBG Robert NNP Lincoln NNP -RRB- -RRB- feared VBD that IN his PRP$ body NN might MD have VB been VBN stolen VBN in IN the DT intervening JJ years NNS . .
9 They PRP decided VBD to TO open VB the DT coffin NN and CC check NN . .
11 When WRB they PRP did VBD , , they PRP were VBD amazed VBN at IN the DT sight NN . .
9 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS body NN was VBD almost RB perfectly RB preserved VBN . .
17 It PRP had VBD been VBN embalmed VBN so RB many JJ times NNS following VBG his PRP$ death NN that IN his PRP$ body NN had VBD not RB decayed VBN . .
17 In IN fact NN , , he PRP was VBD perfectly RB recognizable JJ , , even RB more RBR than IN thirty CD years NNS after IN his PRP$ death NN . .
31 On IN his PRP$ chest NN , , they PRP could MD see VB red JJ , , white JJ , , and CC blue JJ specks NNS remnants NNS of IN the DT American JJ flag NN with IN which WDT he PRP was VBD buried VBN , , which WDT had VBD by IN then RB disintegrated VBD . .
19 All DT 23 CD of IN the DT people NNS who WP viewed VBD the DT remains NNS of IN Mr NNP . . Lincoln NNP have VBP long RB since IN passed VBN away RP . .
25 One CD of IN the DT last JJ , , a DT youth NN of IN 13 CD at IN the DT time NN , , was VBD Fleetwood NNP Lindley NNP , , who WP died VBD on IN February NNP 1 CD , , 1963 CD . .
12 Three CD days NNS before IN he PRP died VBD , , Mr NNP . . Lindley NNP was VBD interviewed VBN . .
12 He PRP said VBD , , '' '' Yes UH , , his PRP$ face NN was VBD chalky JJ white JJ . .
5 His PRP$ clothes NNS were VBD mildewed VBN . .
23 And CC I PRP was VBD allowed VBN to TO hold VB one CD of IN the DT leather NN straps NNS as IN we PRP lowered VBD the DT casket NN for IN the DT concrete NN to TO be VB poured VBN . .
19 I PRP was VBD not RB scared VBN at IN the DT time NN but CC I PRP slept VBD with IN Lincoln NNP for IN the DT next JJ six CD months NNS . . '' ''
12 -LRB- -LRB- -LRB- -LRB- 1 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://members NNS . . aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln13 '' . . html NN -RRB- -RRB- -RRB- -RRB-
30 Another DT youth NN present JJ , , George NNP Cashman NNP , , also RB remembered VBD the DT event NN until IN his PRP$ death NN and CC it PRP made VBD even RB more JJR of IN an DT impression NN on IN him PRP , , even RB as IN an DT adult NN . .
46 The DT last JJ years NNS of IN his PRP$ life NN , , George NNP Cashman NNP was VBD the DT curator NN of IN the DT National NNP Landmark NNP in IN Springfield NNP called VBD '' '' L NNP incoln NN ' ' s POS Tomb NNP . . '' '' He PRP particularly RB enjoyed VBN relating VBG his PRP$ story NN to TO the DT more JJR than IN one CD million CD visitors NNS to TO the DT site NN each DT year NN . .
20 Mr NNP . . Cashman NNP passed VBD away RB in IN 1979 CD , , the DT last JJ person NN to TO have VB viewed VBN the DT remains NNS of IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP . .
17 Lincoln NNP memorialized VBD Daniel NNP Chester NNP French NNP ' ' s POS seated JJ Lincoln NNP faces VBZ the DT National NNP Mall NNP to TO the DT east JJ . .
52 Lincoln NNP has VBZ been VBN memorialized VBN in IN many JJ city NN names NNS , , notably RB the DT capital NN of IN Nebraska NNP ; ; with IN the DT Lincoln NNP Memorial NNP in IN Washington NNP , , DC NNP -LRB- -LRB- illustrated VBN , , right NN -RRB- -RRB- ; ; on IN the DT U.S NNP . . $ $ 5 CD bill NN and CC the DT 1 CD cent NN coin NN ; ; and CC as IN part NN of IN the DT Mount NNP Rushmore NNP National NNP Memorial NNP . .
41 Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS Tomb NNP , , Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS Home NNP in IN Springfield NNP , , New NNP Salem NNP , , Illinois NNP -LRB- -LRB- a DT reconstruction NN of IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS early JJ adult NN hometown NN -RRB- -RRB- , , Ford NNP ' ' s POS Theater NNP and CC Petersen NNP House NNP are VBP all DT preserved VBN as IN museums NNS . .
41 On IN February NNP 12 CD , , 1892 CD Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS birthday NN was VBD declared VBN to TO be VB a DT federal JJ holiday NN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , though IN it PRP was VBD later RB combined VBN with IN Washington NNP ' ' s POS birthday NN in IN the DT form NN of IN President NNP ' ' s POS Day NNP . .
35 -LRB- -LRB- Th DT ey NN are VBP still RB celebrated VBN separately RB in IN Illinois NNP . . -RRB- -RRB- The DT ballistic JJ missile NN submarine NN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- SSBN-602 NNP -RRB- -RRB- and CC the DT aircraft NN carrier NN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- CVN-72 NNP -RRB- -RRB- were VBD named VBN in IN his PRP$ honor NN . .
37 Quotes NNP '' '' I PRP should MD like VB to TO know VB , , if IN taking VBG this DT old JJ Declaration NNP of IN Independence NNP , , which WDT declares VBZ that IN all DT men NNS are VBP equal JJ upon IN principle NN , , and CC making VBG exceptions NNS to TO it PRP , , where WRB will MD it PRP stop VB ? ?
24 If IN one CD man NN says VBZ it PRP does VBZ not RB mean VB a DT negro NN , , why WRB may MD not RB another DT man NN say VBP it PRP does VBZ not RB mean VB another DT man NN ? ?
24 If IN the DT Declaration NNP is VBZ not RB the DT truth NN , , let VB us PRP get VB the DT statute NN book NN in IN which WDT we PRP find VBP it PRP and CC tear VB it PRP out RP . .
9 Who WP is VBZ so RB bold JJ as IN to TO do VB it PRP ? ?
58 If IN it PRP is VBZ not RB true JJ , , let VB us PRP tear VB it PRP out RP . . '' '' - - From IN the DT Lincoln-Douglas NNP debates NNS -LRB- -LRB- 1858 CD -RRB- -RRB- Views NNS on IN Race NNP Although IN Lincoln NNP is VBZ well RB known VBN for IN his PRP$ role NN in IN abolishing NN slavery NN in IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , Canadian JJ ethicist NN David NNP Sztybel NNP has VBZ collected VBN many JJ examples NNS of IN racism NN in IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS speeches NNS and CC writings NNS . .
7 For IN example NN : : '' '' Negro NNP equality NN ! !
44 How WRB long JJ , , in IN the DT government NN of IN a DT God NNP , , great JJ enough JJ to TO make VB and CC maintain VB this DT Universe NN , , shall MD there EX continue VB knaves NNS to TO vend VB , , and CC fools NNS to TO gulp VB , , so RB low JJ a DT piece NN of IN demagougism NN -LRB- -LRB- sic JJ -RRB- -RRB- as IN this DT '' '' . .
34 - - -LRB- -LRB- Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP , , The DT Collected NNP Works NNP of IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP , , -LRB- -LRB- New NNP Brunswick NNP , , New NNP Jersey NNP : : Rutgers NNP University NNP Press NNP , , 1953 CD -RRB- -RRB- , , v CC . . 3 CD , , p RB . . 399 CD . .
117 Fragments NNS : : Notes NNS for IN Speeches NNS , , Sept NNP . . 6 CD , , 1859 CD -RRB- -RRB- '' '' I PRP will MD say VB , , then RB , , that IN I PRP am VBP not RB , , nor CC ever RB have VBP been VBN , , in IN favor NN of IN bringing VBG about IN in IN any DT way NN the DT social JJ and CC political JJ equality NN of IN the DT white JJ and CC black JJ races--that IN I PRP am VBP not RB nor JJ ever RB have VBP been VBN in IN favor NN of IN making VBG voters NNS or CC jurors NNS of IN negroes NNS , , nor CC of IN qualifying VBG them PRP to TO hold VB office NN , , nor CC to TO intermarry VB with IN white JJ people NNS ; ; and CC I PRP will MD say VB in IN addition NN to TO this DT that IN there EX is VBZ a DT physical JJ difference NN between IN the DT white JJ and CC black JJ races NNS which WDT will MD ever RB forbid VB the DT two CD races NNS living VBG together RB in IN terms NNS of IN social JJ and CC political JJ equality NN . .
24 And CC inasmuch JJ as IN they PRP cannot MD so RB live JJ , , while IN they PRP do VBP remain VBP together RB , , there EX must MD be VB the DT position NN of IN superior JJ and CC inferior JJ . .
29 I PRP am VBP as RB much JJ as IN any DT other JJ man NN in IN favor NN of IN having VBG the DT superior JJ position NN assigned VBN to TO the DT white JJ race NN . . '' '' - - op NN cit NN pp NN . . 247-8 CD . .
58 Sixth NNP Debate NNP with IN Steven NNP A NNP . . Douglas NNP at IN Quincy NNP , , Ill NNP . . , , Oct NNP . . 13 CD , , 1858 CD -RRB- -RRB- Nevertheless RB , , despite IN early JJ hesitation NN due JJ to TO campaign NN promises NNS and CC the DT need NN to TO keep VB the DT slaveowning VBG border NN states NNS from IN joining VBG the DT Confederacy NNP , , Lincoln NNP did VBD more RBR than IN any DT of IN his PRP$ predecessors NNS to TO ensure VB the DT eventual JJ destruction NN of IN slavery NN . .
29 He PRP spoke VBD about IN the DT evils NNS of IN slavery NN throughout IN his PRP$ career NN , , strongly RB backed VBD the DT Thirteenth NNP Amendment NNP , , and CC as IN president NN consulted VBN with IN black JJ leaders NNS such JJ as IN Frederick NNP Douglass NNP . .
18 In IN issuing VBG the DT Emancipation NNP Proclamation NNP , , Lincoln NNP made VBD the DT ending NN of IN slavery NN a DT key NN Union NNP war NN aim NN . .
4 Related JJ articles NNS U.S NNP . .
32 presidential JJ election NN , , 1860 CD U.S NNP . . presidential JJ election NN , , 1864 CD Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS second JJ inaugural JJ address NN Origins NNS of IN the DT American JJ Civil NNP War NNP Lincoln-Kennedy NNP coincidences NNS Further RB reading VBG Lincoln NNP by IN David NNP Herbert NNP Donald NNP . .
16 ISBN NNP 068482535X NNP Lincoln NNP Reconsidered NNP : : Essays NNP on IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP Era NNP by IN David NNP Herbert NNP Donald NNP . .
13 ISBN NNP 0375725326 CD Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP : : Redeemer NNP President NNP by IN Allen NNP C NNP . . Guelzo NNP . .
16 ISBN NNP 0802842933 CD External NNP links NNS Wikiquote NNP has VBZ a DT collection NN of IN quotations NNS by IN or CC about IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP . .
14 Lincoln NNP Studies NNPS Center NNP at IN Knox NNP College NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://deptorg JJ . . knox NN . . edu/lincolnstudies NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
13 Wikiquote NNP - - Quotes VBZ by IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://quote NN . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln NNP -RRB- -RRB-
12 First NNP Inaugural NNP Address NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . yale NN . . edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/lincoln1 CD . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
12 Second JJ Inaugural NNP Address NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . yale NN . . edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/lincoln2 CD . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
23 Original JJ 1860 CD ' ' s POS Harper NNP ' ' s POS Weekly NNP Images NNP and CC News NNP on IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www NN . . sonofthesouth NN . . net/prod01 CD . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
21 The DT Lincoln NNP Log NNP : : A DT Daily NNP Chronology NNP of IN the DT Life NNP of IN Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://dev.stg JJ . . brown JJ . . edu/projects/lincoln NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
30 The DT Real JJ Lincoln NNP : : An DT article NN by IN Walter NNP E NNP . . Williams NNP on IN Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS suppression NN of IN the DT right NN to TO secede VB -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . gmu NNS . . edu/departments/economics/wew/articles/02/lincoln JJ . . html NN -RRB- -RRB-
10 The DT Lincoln NNP Museum NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . thelincolnmuseum NN . . org NN -RRB- -RRB-
11 Forced NNP into IN Glory NNP : : Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS White NNP Dream NNP . .
11 -LRB- -LRB- http://www NN . . mises VBZ . . org/misesreview_detail JJ . . asp JJ ? ? control=173&sortorder=issue NN -RRB- -RRB-
15 Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP : : Dark NNP Side NNP of IN a DT Liberator NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://sztybel NN . . tripod.com/lincoln NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB-
22 by IN David NNP Sztybel NNP , , Ph NNP . . D NNP . . Early RB 1840s CD daguerrotype NN thought VBD to TO be VB oldest JJ known JJ portrait NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . lincolnportrait.com NN -RRB- -RRB-
10 Abraham NNP Lincoln NNP quotes NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://en NN . . thinkexist.com/quotes/abraham_lincoln NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB- at IN
6 ThinkExist.comQuotations NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . thinkexist.com NN -RRB- -RRB-
18 John NNP Summerfield NNP Staples NNP , , President NNP Lincoln NNP ' ' s POS '' '' Substitute NNP '' '' -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB-
45 Categories NNS : : Presidents NNS of IN the DT U.S NNP . . |  U.S NNP . . Republican NNP Party NNP presidential JJ nominees NNS |  Members NNS of IN the DT U.S NNP . . House NNP of IN Representatives NNPS |  U.S NNP . . Army NNP officers NNS |  Assassinated VBN people NNS |  American JJ Civil NNP War NNP people NNS |  Illinois NNP politicians NNS |  1809 CD births NNS |  1865 CD deaths deaths
27 Reuters/Stephen NNP Hird NNP Stephen NNP William NNP Hawking NNP , , CH VB CBE NNP FRS NNP -LRB- -LRB- born VBN January NNP 8 CD , , 1942 CD -RRB- -RRB- is VBZ one CD of IN the DT world NN ' ' s POS leading VBG theoretical JJ physicists NNS . .
21 Hawking NN is VBZ Lucasian JJ professor NN of IN mathematics NNS at IN the DT University NNP of IN Cambridge NNP -LRB- -LRB- a DT post NN once RB held VBN by IN Isaac NNP Newton NNP -RRB- -RRB- . .
41 1 CD Biography NNP 2 CD Losing VBG an DT old JJ bet NN 3 CD Awards NNPS 4 CD Publications NNPS 4.1 CD Technical NNP 4.2 CD Popular NNP 5 CD Satire NNP 6 CD See NNP also RB 7 CD External JJ links NNS Biography NNP Hawking NNP was VBD born VBN in IN Oxford NNP , , England NNP to TO Frank NNP and CC Isobel NNP Hawking NNP as IN their PRP$ first JJ child NN . .
26 He PRP was VBD educated VBN at IN St NNP Albans NNP School NNP , , Hertfordshire NNP and CC University NNP College NNP , , Oxford NNP , , where WRB he PRP obtained VBD a DT first JJ class NN honours NNS degree NN in IN physics NNS . .
15 He PRP moved VBD to TO Cambridge NNP University NNP to TO complete VB his PRP$ PhD NNP in IN cosmology NN at IN Trinity NNP Hall NNP . .
25 He PRP was VBD elected VBN a DT Fellow NNP of IN the DT Royal NNP Society NNP in IN 1974 CD , , appointed VBN CBE NNP in IN 1982 CD and CC became VBD a DT Companion NNP of IN Honour NNP in IN 1989 CD . .
12 His PRP$ principal JJ areas NNS of IN research NN are VBP theoretical JJ cosmology NN and CC quantum NN gravity NN . .
20 His PRP$ major JJ contributions NNS to TO the DT field NN of IN research NN include VBP his PRP$ papers NNS on IN the DT relationship NN between IN black JJ holes NNS and CC thermodynamics NNS . .
59 His PRP$ research NN indicated VBD that IN black JJ holes NNS do VBP not RB exist VB forever RB , , but CC rather RB that IN virtual JJ particle NN pairs NNS created VBN near IN their PRP$ event NN horizons NNS cause VBP them PRP to TO '' '' evaporate VB '' '' over IN time NN in IN a DT process NN known VBN as IN Hawking NNP radiation NN -LRB- -LRB- although IN , , in IN July NNP 2004 CD , , he PRP indicated VBD that IN his PRP$ theory NN that IN black JJ holes NNS destroy VBP information NN was VBD incorrectsee JJ below IN -RRB- -RRB- . .
19 He PRP is VBZ also RB known VBN for IN his PRP$ chronology NN protection NN conjecture NN which WDT hypothesizes VBZ the DT theoretical JJ impossibility NN of IN closed JJ timelike JJ curves NNS . .
24 In IN spite NN of IN being VBG severely RB disabled JJ by IN Motor NNP Neurone NNP Disease NNP , , he PRP is VBZ highly RB active JJ in IN physics NNS , , writing VBG , , and CC public JJ life NN . .
14 He PRP first RB began VBD to TO show VB symptoms NNS of IN the DT disorder NN while IN enrolled VBN in IN Cambridge NNP . .
15 He PRP was VBD diagnosed VBN at IN the DT age NN of IN 21 CD , , shortly RB before IN his PRP$ first JJ marriage NN . .
19 At IN the DT time NN , , doctors NNS said VBD he PRP would MD not RB live VB more JJR than IN about IN two CD or CC three CD years NNS longer RBR . .
24 He PRP battled VBD the DT odds NNS and CC has VBZ survived VBN much RB longer RBR , , although IN he PRP has VBZ become VBN increasingly RB disabled JJ by IN the DT gradual JJ progress NN of IN the DT disease NN . .
23 He PRP has VBZ used VBN an DT electronic JJ voice NN synthesizer NN to TO communicate VB since IN he PRP had VBD a DT tracheotomy NN in IN 1985 CD following VBG a DT severe JJ bout NN of IN bronchitis NN . .
16 He PRP gradually RB lost VBD the DT use NN of IN his PRP$ arms NNS and CC legs NNS and CC now RB almost RB cannot JJ move NN . .
47 The DT computer NN system NN attached VBN to TO his PRP$ wheelchair NN is VBZ operated VBN by IN Hawking NNP manually RB through IN a DT device NN called VBN '' '' Clicker NNP '' '' , , which WDT lets VBZ him PRP select VB words NNS and CC other JJ options NNS on IN his PRP$ computer NN ' ' s POS screen NN , , but CC can MD be VB controlled VBN by IN head NN or CC eye NN movement NN as RB well RB . .
31 Being NNP remembered VBD chiefly RB for IN his PRP$ science NN , , there EX is VBZ every DT chance NN that IN he PRP would MD never RB have VB made VBN the DT discoveries NNS he PRP has VBZ were VBD it PRP not RB for IN the DT support NN of IN his PRP$ family NN . .
35 Although IN he PRP divorced VBD Jane NNP in IN 1990 CD -LRB- -LRB- they PRP had VBD 3 CD children NNS - - named VBN Tim NNP , , Lucy NNP and CC Robert NNP - - and CC now RB have VBP a DT grandchild NN -RRB- -RRB- , , Hawking NNP is VBZ still RB something NN of IN a DT family NN man NN . .
7 Relationships NNS drive VBP him PRP , , not RB physics NNS . .
62 In IN spite NN of IN his PRP$ disease NN he PRP describes VBZ himself PRP as IN '' '' lucky JJ '' '' - - not RB just RB because IN its PRP$ slow JJ progress NN allowed VBD him PRP time NN to TO make VB influential JJ discoveries NNS but CC because IN it PRP afforded VBD him PRP time NN to TO have VB , , in IN his PRP$ own JJ words NNS , , '' '' a DT very RB attractive JJ famil NN y NN '' '' -LRB- -LRB- 1 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . hawking NN . . org NN . . uk/disable/dindex NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB- . .
42 When WRB Jane NNP was VBD asked VBN why WRB she PRP decided VBD to TO marry VB a DT man NN with IN a DT 3-year JJ life NN expectancy NN , , she PRP responded VBD : : '' '' These DT were VBD the DT days NNS of IN atomic JJ gloom NN and CC doom NN , , so RB we PRP all DT had VBD rather RB a DT short JJ life NN expectancy NN '' '' . .
10 He PRP married VBD his PRP$ second JJ wife NN Elaine NNP Mason NNP in IN 1995 CD . .
28 His PRP$ two CD books NNS A DT Brief JJ History NN of IN Time NNP and CC The DT Universe NNP in IN a DT Nutshell NNP have VBP remained VBN highly RB popular JJ all DT over IN the DT world NN and CC are VBP now RB classic JJ best-sellers NNS . .
29 Anyone NN interested JJ in IN the DT universe NN , , cosmos NNS and CC how WRB it PRP all DT began VBD can MD read VB them PRP : : no DT previous JJ knowledge NN in IN this DT field NN is VBZ required VBN to TO enjoy VB these DT books NNS . .
32 Hawking NNP as IN himself PRP on IN Star NNP Trek NNP TNG NNP In IN popular JJ culture NN , , he PRP has VBZ become VBN a DT widely RB admired VBN figure NN as IN a DT genius NN who WP has VBZ had VBN a DT successful JJ life NN despite IN his PRP$ severe JJ disability NN . .
71 He PRP had VBD a DT guest JJ appearance NN in IN an DT episode NN on IN the DT holodeck NN of IN the DT television NN series NN Star NNP Trek NNP : : The DT Next NNP Generation NNP , , playing VBG poker NN with IN Data NNP , , Albert NNP Einstein NNP , , and CC Isaac NNP Newton NNP in IN the DT episode NN '' '' Descent NNP , , Part NN I PRP . . '' '' The DT animated JJ television NN series NN The DT Simpsons NNP and CC Futurama NNP have VBP occasionally RB featured VBN him PRP in IN episodes NNS , , and CC a DT character NN playing VBG Hawking NNP has VBZ appeared VBN in IN the DT television NN series NN Dilbert NNP . .
15 On IN Late JJ Night NNP with IN Conan NNP O'Brien NNP he PRP participated VBD in IN a DT bit NN with IN Jim NNP Carrey NNP . .
19 He PRP also RB lent VBD his PRP$ voice NN to TO the DT Pink JJ Floyd NNP song NN '' '' Keep VB Talking VBG '' '' from IN The DT Division NNP Bell NNP . .
23 A DT parody NN website NN even RB has VBZ a DT Hawking-like JJ voice NN synthesizer NN rapping VBG about IN physics NNS -LRB- -LRB- 2 CD -RRB- -RRB- -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . mchawking NN . . com NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
25 Hawking NNP is VBZ famous JJ for IN his PRP$ oft-made JJ statement NN , , '' '' When WRB I PRP hear VBP of IN Schrodinger NNP ' ' s POS cat NN , , I PRP reach VBP for IN my PRP$ gun NN . . '' ''
49 This DT was VBD a DT deliberately RB ironic JJ paraphrase NN of IN Hermann NNP Goring NNP ' ' s POS anti-intellectual JJ quote NN , , '' '' When WRB I PRP hear VBP the DT word NN ' ' culture VBP ' ' , , I PRP reach VBP for IN my PRP$ Browning NNP '' '' , , which WDT itself PRP was VBD from IN a DT play NN by IN German JJ playwright NN and CC Nazi JJ Poet NNP Laureate NNP , , Hanns NNP Joh NNP st NN . .
53 As RB well RB as IN his PRP$ serious JJ academic JJ side NN , , and CC humor NN , , Hawking NNP is VBZ an DT active JJ supporter NN of IN different JJ causes NNS , , having VBG appeared VBN on IN a DT party NN political JJ broadcast NN for IN the DT Labour NNP Party NNP , , and CC in IN actively RB supporting VBG the DT children NNS ' ' s POS charity NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . sos-uk NN . . org NNP . . uk/our-friends . . . htm NNP -RRB- -RRB- , ,
6 SOS NNP Children NNP ' ' s POS Villages NNS . .
48 Losing VBG an DT old JJ bet NN Hawking NN was VBD in IN the DT news NN in IN July NNP 2004 CD for IN presenting VBG a DT new JJ theory NN about IN black JJ holes NNS which WDT goes VBZ against IN his PRP$ own JJ long-held JJ belief NN about IN their PRP$ behaviour NN , , thus RB losing VBG a DT bet NN he PRP and CC Kip NNP Thorne NNP made VBD with IN John NNP Preskill NNP , , a DT particle NN physicist NN . .
22 Classically RB , , it PRP can MD be VB shown VBN that IN information NN crossing VBG the DT event NN horizon NN of IN a DT black JJ hole NN is VBZ lost VBN to TO our PRP$ universe NN . .
9 This DT is VBZ known VBN as IN the DT no DT hair NN theorem NN . .
28 The DT problem NN with IN the DT no DT hair NN theorem NN is VBZ that IN it PRP implies VBZ the DT black JJ hole NN will MD emit VB the DT same JJ radiation NN regardless RB of IN what WP goes VBZ into IN the DT black JJ hole NN . .
21 So RB if IN you PRP throw VBP a DT pure JJ quantum NN state NN into IN a DT black JJ hole NN , , you PRP will MD get VB out RP a DT mixed JJ state NN . .
19 This DT runs VBZ counter VBP to TO the DT rules NNS of IN quantum NN mechanics NNS and CC is VBZ known VBN as IN the DT black JJ hole NN information NN paradox NN . .
42 Hawking NN had VBD earlier JJR speculated VBN that IN the DT singularity NN at IN the DT center NN of IN a DT black JJ hole NN could MD form VB a DT bridge NN to TO a DT '' '' baby NN universe NN '' '' into IN which WDT the DT lost VBN information NN could MD pass VB ; ; such JJ theories NNS have VBP been VBN very RB popular JJ in IN science NN fiction NN . .
47 But CC according VBG to TO Hawking NNP ' ' s POS new JJ idea NN , , presented VBN at IN the DT 17th JJ International NNP Conference NNP on IN General NNP Relativity NNP and CC Gravitation NNP , , on IN 21 CD July NNP 2004 CD in IN Dublin NNP , , Ireland NNP , , black JJ holes NNS eventually RB transmit VB , , in IN a DT garbled JJ form NN , , information NN about IN all DT matter NN they PRP swallow VBP . .
26 The DT Euclidean JJ path NN integral NN over IN all DT topologically RB trivial JJ metrics NNS can MD be VB done VBN by IN time NN slicing VBG and CC so RB is VBZ unitary JJ when WRB analytically RB continued VBD to TO the DT Lorentzian NNP . .
21 On IN the DT other JJ hand NN , , the DT path NN integral NN over IN all DT topologically RB non-trivial JJ metrics NNS is VBZ asymptotically RB independent JJ of IN the DT initial JJ state NN . .
21 Thus RB the DT total JJ path NN integral NN is VBZ unitary JJ and CC information NN is VBZ not RB lost VBN in IN the DT formation NN and CC evaporation NN of IN black JJ holes NNS . .
22 The DT way NN the DT information NN gets VBZ out IN seems VBZ to TO be VB that IN a DT true JJ event NN horizon NN never RB forms NNS , , just RB an DT apparent JJ horizon NN . .
11 - - -GR NNP Conference NNP website NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www NN . . dcu.ie/~nolanb/gr17 CD . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
7 summary NN of IN Hawking NNP ' ' s POS talk NN . .
37 Having VBG concluded VBN that DT information NN is VBZ conserved VBN , , Hawking NNP conceded VBD his PRP$ bet NN in IN Preskill NNP ' ' s POS favor NN , , awarding VBG him PRP Total JJ Baseball NN , , The DT Ultimate NNP Baseball NNP Encyclopedia NNP , , an DT encyclop NN dia NN from IN which WDT information NN is VBZ easily RB retrieved VBN . .
18 However RB , , Thorne NNP remains VBZ unconvinced JJ of IN Hawking NNP ' ' s POS proof NN and CC declined VBD to TO contribute VB to TO the DT award NN . .
80 Awards RB 1975 CD Eddington NNP Medal NNP 1985 CD Gold NNP Medal NNP of IN the DT Royal NNP Astronomical NNP Society NNP 1999 CD Julius NNP Edgar NNP Lilienfeld NNP Prize NNP of IN the DT American NNP Physical NNP Society NNP Publications NNPS Technical NNPS The DT Large JJ Scale NNP Structure NNP of IN Spacetime NNP with IN George NNP Ellis NNP . . ..and CC many JJ more JJR Popular NNP A DT Brief JJ History NN of IN Time NNP , , -LRB- -LRB- Bantam NNP Press NNP 1988 CD -RRB- -RRB- Black NNP Holes NNP and CC Baby NNP Universes NNS and CC Other JJ Essays NNP , , -LRB- -LRB- Bantam NNP Books NNPS 1993 CD -RRB- -RRB- The DT Universe NNP in IN a DT Nutshell NNP , , -LRB- -LRB- Bantam NNP Press NNP 2001 CD -RRB- -RRB- . . ..and CC many JJ more JJR N.B NNP . .
17 On IN Hawking NNP ' ' s POS website NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . hawking NN . . org NN . . uk/info/iindex NN . . html NN -RRB- -RRB- , ,
18 he PRP denounces VBZ the DT unauthorized JJ publication NN of IN The DT Theory NNP of IN Everything NNP and CC asks VBZ consumers NNS to TO boycott VB this DT book NN . .
50 Satire NNP MC NNP Hawking NNP - - the DT imaginary JJ alter-ego NN for IN the DT '' '' theoretical JJ physicist NN turned VBD gangster-rapper NN '' '' The DT Simpsons NNPS - - made VBD a DT guest JJ appearance NN on IN the DT long JJ running VBG prime-time NN cartoon NN ; ; his PRP$ chair NN had VBD unusual JJ super-characteristics NNS , , including VBG an DT Inspector NNP Gadget NNP style NN retractable NN helicopter NN attachment NN and CC a DT spring-loaded JJ boxing NN gl NN ove NN . .
32 The DT Onion NNP - - satirical JJ newspaper NN ran VBD an DT article NN claiming VBG that IN Hawking NNP ' ' s POS head NN had VBD been VBN mounted VBN on IN a DT super-robotic JJ cyborg NN body NN , , complete JJ with IN laser NN guided VBN missles NNS and CC a DT jetpack NN . .
23 Hawking NN , , with IN his PRP$ typical JJ good JJ humor NN , , sent VBD them PRP a DT letter NN cursing VBG them PRP for IN exposing VBG his PRP$ evil JJ plans NNS for IN world NN domination NN . .
29 See VB also RB Jacob NNP Bekenstein NNP Roger NNP Penrose NNP Kip NNP S NNP . . Thorne NNP gravitational JJ singularity NN External NNP links NNS Stephen NNP Hawking NNP ' ' s POS site NN -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . hawking NN . . org NN . . uk NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
41 Stephen NNP Hawking NNP quotes NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://wikiquote NN . . org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking NN -RRB- -RRB- at IN Wikiquote NNP Emma NNP Ross NNP , , Stephen NNP Hawking NNP ' ' s POS Birthday NNP Celebrated NNP , , 7 CD January NNP 2002 CD , , LA NNP Times NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/wire/sns-ap-britain-stephen-hawking0107jan07 CD . . story JJ ? ? coll=sns NNS % % 2Dap JJ % % 2Dworld NN % % 2Dheadlines NNS -RRB- -RRB-
19 Hawking VBG celebrates NNS own JJ brief JJ history NN , , 7 CD January NNP 2002 CD , , BBC NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://news.b JJ bc NN . . co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1746000/1746912 NN . . stm NN -RRB- -RRB-
21 Black NNP holes NNPS turned VBD '' '' inside JJ out IN '' '' , , 22 CD July NNP 2004 CD , , BBC NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://news.b JJ bc NN . . co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3913145 CD . . stm NN -RRB- -RRB-
9 Retrieved VBN from IN '' '' http://en JJ . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking NNP '' ''
22 Categories NNS : : 1942 CD births NNS |  Astronomers NNP |  British JJ scientists NNS |  Cosmologists NNS |  Fellows NNS of IN the DT Royal NNP Society NNP |  Physicists NNPS |  Science NNP writers writers
24 Alexander NNP Hamilton NNP Alexander NNP Hamilton NNP -LRB- -LRB- January NNP 11 CD , , 1755 CD July NNP 12 CD , , 1804 CD -RRB- -RRB- was VBD an DT American JJ statesman NN , , journalist NN , , and CC lawyer NN . .
33 He PRP is VBZ credited VBN as IN being VBG America NNP ' ' s POS greatest JJS constitutional JJ lawyer NN , , and CC with IN successfully RB defending VBG the DT U.S NNP . . Constitution NNP to TO skeptical JJ New NNP Yorkers NNP as IN the DT principal JJ author NN of IN the DT Federalist NNP Papers NNP . .
46 He PRP also RB put VBD the DT new JJ United NNP States NNPS of IN America NNP onto IN a DT sound JJ economic JJ footing NN as IN its PRP$ first JJ and CC most RBS influential JJ Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP , , establishing VBG a DT central JJ bank NN , , public JJ credit NN , , and CC the DT foundations NNS for IN a DT mixed JJ economy NN and CC stock NN and CC commodity NN exchanges NNS . .
70 1 CD Early JJ years NNS 2 CD Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP 3 CD Hamilton NNP as IN industrialist JJ 4 CD The DT Maria NNP Reynolds NNP affair NN and CC rivalry NN with IN Aaron NNP Burr NNP 5 CD Hamilton NNP and CC modern JJ politics NNS 6 CD Biographies NNP 7 CD Writings VBZ Early RB years NNS Alexander NNP Hamilton NNP was VBD born VBN on IN the DT West NNP Indies NNP island NN of IN Nevis NNP , , the DT son NN of IN James NNP Hamilton NNP , , a DT struggling VBG businessman NN from IN Scotland NNP , , and CC Rachel NNP Fawcet NNP Lavien NNP , , who WP was VBD then RB married VBN to TO another DT man NN . .
18 His PRP$ father NN abandoned VBD the DT family NN , , and CC his PRP$ mother NN died VBD when WRB Hamilton NNP was VBD in IN his PRP$ early JJ teens NNS . .
28 As IN a DT teenager NN , , a DT letter NN he PRP wrote VBD to TO the DT local JJ paper NN caused VBD such JJ a DT sensation NN that WDT community NN leaders NNS raised VBD money NN to TO fund VB his PRP$ passage NN to TO America NNP . .
16 He PRP settled VBD in IN New NNP York NNP in IN 1772 CD for IN formal JJ education NN , , beginning VBG with IN grammar NN school NN . .
14 Later RB he PRP attended VBD King NNP ' ' s POS College NNP , , which WDT is VBZ now RB Columbia NNP University NNP . .
8 Hamilton NNP posessed VBD talents NNS of IN the DT highest JJS order NN . .
33 At IN the DT start NN of IN his PRP$ teenage NN years NNS , , Hamilton NNP is VBZ an DT impoverished JJ orphan NN with IN no DT family NN connections NNS , , working VBG as IN a DT clerk NN on IN the DT island NN of IN St NNP . . Croix NNP in IN the DT caribbean NN . .
42 By IN the DT closing NN of IN his PRP$ Teenage NNP years NNS , , Alexander NNP Hamilton NNP is VBZ in IN America NNP , , General NNP George NNP Washington NNP ' ' s POS most JJS trusted VBD aide-de-camp NN , , an DT accomplished VBN Artillery NNP captain NN , , and CC a DT published VBN pampheleteer NN of IN renown NN in IN his PRP$ own JJ state NN of IN New NNP York NNP . .
25 It PRP was VBD while IN on IN the DT battlefield NN however RB that IN Hamilton NNP began VBD formulating VBG the DT ideas NNS on IN government NN and CC economics NNS that WDT would MD make VB him PRP a DT historic JJ figure NN . .
19 He PRP left VBD Washington NNP to TO take VB command NN of IN an DT infantry NN regiment NN that WDT took VBD part NN in IN the DT siege NN of IN Yorktown NNP . .
32 At IN the DT age NN of IN 25 CD , , he PRP served VBD as IN a DT member NN of IN the DT Continental NNP Congress NNP from IN 1782-17 CD 83 CD , , then RB retired VBD to TO open VB his PRP$ own JJ law NN office NN in IN New NNP York NNP City NNP . .
16 His PRP$ public JJ career NN resumed VBN when WRB he PRP attended VBD the DT Annapolis NNP Convention NNP as IN a DT delegate NN in IN 1786 CD . .
18 He PRP also RB served VBD in IN the DT New NNP York NNP State NNP Legislature NNP and CC attended VBD the DT Philadelphia NNP Convention NNP in IN 17 CD 87 CD . .
43 Throughout IN the DT convention NN ' ' s POS proceedings NNS , , Hamilton NNP , , who WP was VBD a DT federalist JJ , , argued VBD consistently RB for IN a DT strong JJ central JJ government NN , , including VBG a DT king-like JJ , , though IN not RB hereditary JJ , , president NN , , and CC an DT upper JJ house NN based VBN on IN the DT House NNP of IN Lords NNPS . .
37 Hamilton NNP opposed VBD equal JJ representation NN in IN the DT Senate NNP , , saying VBG the DT idea NN '' '' shocks NNS too RB much RB the DT ideas NNS of IN justice NN and CC every DT human JJ feeling NN '' '' and CC wanted VBD Senators NNS to TO serve VB for IN life NN , , subject JJ to TO good JJ behavior NN . .
42 Although IN the DT document NN finally RB produced VBN by IN the DT convention NN was VBD less JJR centralist NN than IN Hamilton NNP proposed VBD , , and CC the DT tenures NNS of IN those DT exercising VBG power NN were VBD shorter JJR than IN he PRP desired VBD , , Hamilton NNP was VBD active JJ in IN the DT successful JJ campaign NN for IN its PRP$ ratification NN in IN New NNP York NNP . .
17 In IN this DT endeavour NN Hamilton NNP made VBD the DT largest JJS single JJ contribution NN to TO the DT authorship NN of IN the DT Federalist NNP Papers NNP . .
71 Hamilton NNP served VBD another DT term NN in IN 1788 CD in IN what WP proved VBD to TO be VB the DT last JJ time NN the DT Continental NNP Congress NNP met VBD under IN the DT new JJ Articles NNP of IN Confederation NNP . . Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP On IN the DT recommendation NN of IN Robert NNP Morris NNP , , with IN whom WP Hamilton NNP had VBD discussed VBN economics NNS as IN an DT aide-de-camp NN , , President NNP George NNP Washington NNP appointed VBD Hamilton NNP to TO be VB the DT first JJ Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP when WRB the DT first JJ Congress NNP passed VBD an DT Act NNP establishing VBG the DT Treasury NNP Department NNP . .
37 He PRP served VBD in IN that DT post NN from IN September NNP 11 CD , , 1789 CD until IN September NNP 8 CD , , 1798 CD It PRP is VBZ for IN his PRP$ tenure NN as IN Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP that IN Hamilton NNP is VBZ considered VBN one CD of IN America NNP ' ' s POS greatest JJS statesman NN . .
22 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS term NN as IN Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP was VBD marked JJ by IN bold JJ innovation NN , , statesmanlike JJ planning NN , , and CC masterful JJ reports NNS . .
27 In IN office NN for IN barely RB a DT month NN , , he PRP proposed VBD the DT idea NN of IN a DT seagoing JJ branch NN of IN the DT military JJ to TO secure VB the DT tax NN revenue NN against IN contraband NN shipments NNS . .
24 The DT following JJ summer NN , , the DT Congress NNP authorized VBD a DT Revenue NN Marine NNP force NN of IN ten CD cutters NNS , , the DT precursor NN to TO the DT United NNP States NNPS Coast NNP Guard NNP . .
20 He PRP also RB played VBD a DT crucial JJ role NN in IN creating VBG the DT United NNP States NNPS Navy NNP -LRB- -LRB- the DT Naval NNP Act NNP of IN 1794 CD -RRB- -RRB- . .
31 He PRP published VBD Report NNP on IN the DT Public NNP Credit NNP in IN January NNP 1790 CD , , which WDT was VBD a DT milestone NN in IN American JJ financial JJ history NN , , marking VBG the DT end NN of IN an DT era NN of IN bankruptcy NN and CC repudiation NN . .
15 The DT plan NN provided VBD for IN the DT assumption NN of IN both DT the DT domestic JJ and CC the DT foreign JJ debts NNS . .
18 Both DT James NNP Madison NNP and CC Thomas NNP Jefferson NNP strongly RB opposed VBD Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS plan NN , , but CC it PRP passed VBD overwhelmingly RB . .
15 He PRP advocated VBD the DT assumption NN of IN the DT debts NNS of IN the DT States NNPS by IN the DT Federal NNP Government NNP . .
23 Madison NNP and CC Jefferson NNP also RB opposed VBD this DT plan NN , , but CC they PRP settled VBD the DT contest NN in IN a DT private JJ meeting NN on IN July NNP 21 CD , , 1790 CD . .
31 During IN this DT meeting NN , , Hamilton NNP agreed VBD to TO the DT future NN location NN of IN the DT nation NN ' ' s POS capital NN on IN the DT Potomac NNP River NNP , , in IN return NN for IN Jefferson NNP ' ' s POS support NN of IN assumption NN . .
28 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS perceptive JJ and CC creative JJ mind NN , , coupled VBN with IN his PRP$ driving VBG ambition NN to TO set VB his PRP$ ideas NNS in IN motion NN , , resulted VBD in IN many JJ proposals NNS to TO the DT Congress NNP . .
27 His PRP$ proposals NNS included VBD a DT plan NN including VBG import NN duties NNS and CC excise NN taxes NNS for IN raising VBG revenue NN , , funding NN of IN the DT revolutionary JJ debt NN , , and CC suggestions NNS on IN naval JJ laws NNS . .
26 He PRP also RB developed VBD plans NNS for IN a DT Congressional JJ charter NN for IN the DT First NNP Bank NNP of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS , , and CC for IN placing VBG the DT revenues NNS on IN firm JJ ground NN . .
24 Strong JJ opposition NN to TO collection NN efforts NNS of IN his PRP$ excise NN tax NN on IN spirits NNS erupted VBD into IN the DT Whiskey NNP Rebellion NNP in IN Western NNP Pennsylvania NNP and CC Virginia NNP in IN 1794 CD . .
11 Hamilton NNP felt VBD that IN compliance NN with IN the DT laws NNS was VBD very RB urgent JJ . .
27 He PRP accompanied VBD General NNP '' '' Light NNP Horse NNP Harry NNP '' '' Lee NNP and CC his PRP$ troops NNS part NN of IN the DT way NN in IN an DT advisory JJ capacity NN to TO help VB put VB down RP the DT insurrection NN . .
20 Hamilton NNP as IN industrialist JJ Statue NNP of IN Hamilton NNP overlooking VBG the DT Great NNP Falls NNP of IN the DT Passaic NNP River NNP in IN Paterson NNP , , New NNP Jersey NNP . .
45 Hamilton NNP envisioned VBD the DT use NN of IN the DT falls NNS to TO power VB a DT new JJ city NN based VBN on IN industry NN Hamilton NNP was VBD among IN the DT first JJ to TO recognize VB the DT larger JJR transformations NNS of IN industry NN and CC capitalism NN of IN his PRP$ era NN , , in IN particular JJ the DT trend NN to TO larger-scale JJ manufacturing NN financed VBN through IN credit NN institutions NNS . .
38 In IN 1778 CD he PRP had VBD visited VBN the DT Great NNP Falls NNP of IN the DT Passaic NNP River NNP in IN northern JJ New NNP Jersey NNP and CC had VBD envisioned VBN that IN the DT falls NNS could MD one CD day NN be VB harnessed VBN to TO provide VB power NN for IN a DT manufacturing NN center NN on IN the DT site NN . .
39 As IN Secretary NNP of IN Treasury NNP , , he PRP put VBD this DT plan NN into IN motion NN , , helping VBG to TO found VB the DT Society NNP for IN the DT Establishment NNP of IN Useful JJ Manufactures NNS , , a DT private JJ corporation NN which WDT would MD use VB the DT power NN of IN the DT falls NNS to TO operate VB fills NNS . .
32 Although IN company NN did VBD not RB succeed VB in IN its PRP$ original JJ purpose NN , , it PRP leased VBD the DT land NN around IN the DT falls NNS to TO other JJ mill NN ventures NNS and CC continued VBD operate NN for IN over IN a DT century NN and CC a DT half NN . .
43 The DT city NN which WDT grew VBD on IN the DT spot NN of IN Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS vision NN , , Paterson NNP , , New NNP Jersey NNP became VBD one CD of IN the DT most RBS important JJ manufacturing NN centers NNS successsively RB for IN cotton NN , , steel NN , , and CC then RB silk NN , , until IN its PRP$ decline NN after IN World NNP War NNP II NNP . .
32 The DT Maria NNP Reynolds NNP affair NN and CC rivalry NN with IN Aaron NNP Burr NNP One CD scandal NN damaged VBD Alexander NNP Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS reputation NN as IN Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP , , and CC prevented VBD his PRP$ further JJ elevation NN in IN American JJ politics NNS . .
34 In IN 17 CD 94 CD , , he PRP became VBD intimately RB involved VBN with IN Maria NNP Reynolds NNP , , a DT woman NN whose WP$ husband NN subsequently RB blackmailed VBD the DT Secretary NNP for IN money NN , , while IN still RB permitting VBG sexual JJ liaisons NNS between IN Hamilton NNP and CC his PRP$ wife NN . .
19 When WRB James NNP Reynolds NNP was VBD arrested VBN for IN counterfeiting NN , , he PRP contacted VBD several JJ prominent JJ Jeffersonians NNPS , , most RBS notably RB James NNP Monroe NNP . .
24 When WRB they PRP visited VBD Hamilton NNP with IN their PRP$ suspicions NNS of IN malfeasance NN , , he PRP stressed VBD his PRP$ innocence NN , , while IN admitting VBG to TO an DT affair NN with IN Maria NNP Reynolds NNP . .
17 Monroe NNP promised VBD to TO keep VB details NNS from IN public JJ knowledge NN , , but CC Thomas NNP Jefferson NNP had VBD no DT such JJ compunctions NNS . .
18 Hamilton NNP was VBD forced VBN to TO publish VB a DT confession NN of IN his PRP$ affair NN , , which WDT shocked VBD his PRP$ family NN and CC supporters NNS . .
18 A DT duel NN with IN Monroe NNP over IN his PRP$ supposed JJ breach NN was VBD averted VBN by IN none NN other JJ than IN Senator NNP Aaron NNP Burr NNP . .
24 Ironically RB , , attorney NN Aaron NNP Burr NNP would MD later RB represent VB Maria NNP Reynolds NNP in IN her PRP$ divorce NN lawsuit NN , , leading VBG some DT to TO suspect VB he PRP set VBD Hamilton NNP up RB . .
30 However RB , , Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS relationship NN with IN Burr NNP had VBD been VBN cordial JJ during IN their PRP$ years NNS as IN New NNP York NNP lawyers NNS ; ; in IN fact NN , , their PRP$ families NNS often RB met VBD for IN social JJ occasions NNS . .
47 When WRB Burr NNP defeated VBD Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS -LRB- -LRB- father-in-law NN -RRB- -RRB- , , Philip NNP Schuyler NNP in IN the DT 1791 CD Senate NNP race NN , , Hamilton NNP began VBD a DT secret JJ campaign NN to TO destroy VB his PRP$ opportunistic JJ rival NN , , who WP had VBD sought VBN the DT Presidential JJ nomination NN in IN 17 CD 96 CD , , and CC would MD do VB so RB again RB in IN 1800 CD . .
19 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS resignation NN as IN Secretary NNP of IN the DT Treasury NNP in IN 1795 CD did VBD not RB remove VB him PRP from IN public JJ life NN . .
37 With IN the DT resumption NN of IN his PRP$ law NN practice NN , , he PRP remained VBD close JJ to TO Washington NNP as IN an DT advisor NN and CC friend NN and CC he PRP is VBZ believed VBN to TO have VB influenced VBN Washington NNP in IN the DT latter NN ' ' s POS composition NN of IN his PRP$ Farewell NNP Address NNP . .
50 Relations NNPS between IN Hamilton NNP and CC Washington NNP ' ' s POS successor NN , , John NNP Adams NNP , , were VBD frequently RB strained VBN and CC Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS attempts NNS to TO frustrate VB Adams NNP ' ' adoption NN as IN presidential JJ candidate NN of IN the DT Federalist NNP Party NNP split VBD the DT party NN and CC contributed VBD to TO the DT victory NN of IN the DT Jeffersonian NNP Republicans NNPS in IN the DT election NN of IN 1800 CD . .
28 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS role NN in IN ensuring VBG the DT subsequent JJ selection NN of IN Jefferson NNP as IN President NNP in IN preference NN to TO Aaron NNP Burr NNP marked VBD his PRP$ first JJ bold JJ stroke NN against IN his PRP$ erstwhile NN friend NN . .
20 Burr NNP sought VBD the DT New NNP York NNP governorship NN in IN 1804 CD , , first RB running VBG as IN a DT Federalist NNP , , then RB as IN an DT independent JJ . .
23 One CD newspaper NN referred VBD to TO a DT '' '' despicable JJ opinion NN '' '' that IN a DT Dr NNP . . Charles NNP D NNP . . Cooper NNP attributed VBD to TO Hamilton NNP about IN Burr NNP . .
14 Scenting VBG a DT chance NN to TO regain VB political JJ honor NN , , Aaron NNP Burr NNP demanded VBD an DT apology NN . .
15 Hamilton NNP refused VBD , , on IN grounds NNS he PRP could MD not RB recall VB the DT instance NN the DT newspaper NN mentioned VBD . .
43 A DT duel NN was VBD arranged VBN for IN July NNP 11 CD , , on IN a DT rocky JJ ledge NN in IN Weehawken NNP , , New NNP Jersey NNP , , the DT same JJ place NN where WRB Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS son NN Phillip NNP had VBD lost VBN a DT duel NN over IN three CD years NNS earlier RBR , , defending VBG his PRP$ father NN ' ' s POS honor NN . .
7 At IN dawn NN , , the DT duel NN began VBD . .
24 Hamilton NNP , , who WP had VBD come VBN to TO oppose VB dueling NN following VBG his PRP$ son NN ' ' s POS death NN , , may MD have VB fired VBN his PRP$ shot NN into IN the DT air NN . .
20 Others NNS have VBP speculated VBN he PRP could MD have VB misfired VBN his PRP$ pistol NN , , one CD of IN a DT pair NN that IN belonged VBN to TO his PRP$ family NN . .
13 Regardless RB , , Burr NNP shot VBD Hamilton NNP , , the DT bullet NN entering NN below IN the DT chest NN . .
16 He PRP died VBD the DT next JJ day NN and CC was VBD interred VBN in IN the DT Trinity NNP Churchyard NNP Cemetery NNP in IN Manhattan NNP . .
14 Burr NNP fled VBD New NNP York NNP under IN charges NNS of IN murder NN and CC later RB of IN tre NN ason NN . .
23 He PRP died VBD in IN 1836 CD , , having VBG squandered VBN his PRP$ fortune NN , , and CC having VBG become VBN almost RB universally RB reviled VBN because IN of IN his PRP$ 1807 CD conspiracy NN trial NN . .
18 General NNP James NNP Wilkinson NNP had VBD also RB approached VBN Hamilton NNP repeatedly RB with IN plans NNS for IN filibuster NN expeditions NNS along IN the DT Spanish JJ frontier NN . .
11 Hamilton NNP and CC modern JJ politics NNS Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS legacy NN is VBZ manyfold JJ . .
20 Arguably RB , , he PRP set VBD the DT path NN for IN American JJ economic JJ and CC military JJ greatness NN , , though IN the DT benefits NNS might MD be VB argued VBN . .
24 His PRP$ most RBS important JJ contribution NN however RB , , was VBD establishing VBG the DT supremacy NN of IN the DT executive JJ branch NN of IN American JJ Government NN over IN the DT legislative JJ and CC the DT judicial JJ . .
44 At IN the DT moment NN of IN founding NN , , it PRP was VBD not RB clear JJ at IN all DT to TO the DT founders NNS whether IN the DT Executive NNP should MD wield VB most JJS of IN the DT power NN , , especially RB when WRB it PRP came VBD to TO the DT creation NN of IN policy NN , , which WDT was VBD supposed VBN to TO be VB a DT legislative JJ task NN . .
55 From IN the DT start NN however RB , , Hamilton NNP set VBD a DT hugely JJ consequential JJ precedent NN as IN a DT cabinet NN member NN of IN the DT Executive NNP , , by IN dreaming VBG up RP a DT federal JJ program NN , , writing VBG them PRP in IN form NN of IN Reports NNS , , pushing VBG for IN their PRP$ approval NN by IN apearing VBG in IN person NN to TO argue VB them PRP on IN the DT floor NN of IN congress NN , , and CC by IN implementing VBG them PRP . .
19 Hamilton NNP did VBD this DT brilliantly RB , , and CC forcefully RB , , setting VBG a DT high JJ standard NN for IN administrative JJ competence NN in IN the DT Executive NNP . .
29 In IN the DT whole NN of IN Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS policy NN making NN , , the DT legislature NN was VBD a DT passive JJ observer NN , , ultimately RB approving VBG his PRP$ projects NNS with IN little JJ left NN for IN it PRP to TO do VB . .
40 Another DT legacy NN from IN Hamilton NNP , , which WDT in IN his PRP$ time NN was VBD regarded VBN as IN being VBG a DT precedent NN of IN '' '' vast JJ consequence NN '' '' by IN James NNP Madison NNP , , the DT father NN of IN the DT Constitution NNP , , was VBD Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS own JJ interpretation NN of IN the DT Constitution NNP . .
25 The DT document NN was VBD framed VBN by IN lawyers NNS mostly RB , , who WP believed VBD that IN they PRP had VBD clearly RB enumerated VBN what WP could MD , , and CC what WP could MD not RB be VB done VBN . .
14 The DT constitution NN was VBD a DT document NN whereby WRB statesmen NNS could MD govern VB within IN succinctly NN defined VBN borders NNS . .
29 Not RB so RB according VBG to TO Hamilton NNP , , who WP had VBD to TO resort VB to TO a DT historic JJ argument NN to TO justify VB his PRP$ National NNP Bank NNP , , and CC the DT provisions NNS in IN some DT of IN his PRP$ Reports NNP . .
32 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS Argument NNP to TO justify VB his PRP$ National NNP Bank NNP was VBD that IN , , the DT Constitution NNP outlined VBD the DT ends NNS of IN society NN , , justifying VBG the DT means NNS if IN they PRP were VBD necessary JJ to TO achieve VB those DT ends NNS . .
22 His PRP$ National NNP bank NN was VBD perfectly RB constitutional JJ therefore RB , , since IN it PRP was VBD a DT crucial JJ component NN of IN a DT project NN to TO finance VB government NN expenditures NNS . .
27 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS view NN was VBD termed VBN loose-contruction NN , , while IN the DT interpretation NN of IN the DT constitution NN desired VBN by IN James NNP Madison NNP , , and CC Thomas NNP Jefferson NNP is VBZ known VBN as IN Strict-construction NNP . .
27 Many JJ Scholars NNS believe VBP that IN , , had VBD Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS view NN failed VBD , , and CC Madison NNP ' ' s POS prevailed JJ , , the DT Constitution NNP might MD have VB become VBN a DT dead JJ letter NN . .
45 Hamiltons NNP portrait NN began VBD to TO appear VB on IN money NN during IN the DT Civil NNP War NNP , , when WRB he PRP appeared VBD on IN the DT $ $ 2 CD , , $ $ 5 CD , , $ $ 10 CD , , and CC $ $ 50 CD notes NNS , , which WDT was VBD symbolic JJ of IN his PRP$ ideological JJ opposition NN to TO the DT ideas NNS of IN the DT Confederacy NNP . .
13 Hamilton NNP ' ' s POS portrait NN appears VBZ on IN the DT U.S NNP . . $ $ 10 CD bill NN . .
11 Some DT conservatives NNS want VBP to TO replace VB Hamilton NNP with IN Ronald NNP Reagans NNP portrait NN . .
24 Barbara NNP Charline NNP Jordan NNP -LRB- -LRB- February NNP 21 CD , , 1936-January JJ 17 CD , , 1996 CD -RRB- -RRB- became VBD the DT first JJ African-American JJ elected VBN to TO the DT Texas NNP Senate NNP since IN 1883 CD . .
21 Born VBN in IN Houston NNP , , Tex NNP as IN ' ' s POS Fifth NNP Ward NNP , , she PRP did VBD not RB like IN being VBG passive JJ in IN Texas NNP politics NNS . .
11 In IN 1952 CD , , she PRP graduated VBD from IN Phillis NNP Wheatley NNP High NNP School NNP . .
14 She PRP would MD then RB graduate VB as IN Magna NNP Cum NNP from IN Texas NNP Southern NNP University NNP in IN 1956 CD . .
11 She PRP then RB graduated VBD from IN Boston NNP University NNP Law NNP School NNP in IN 1959 CD . .
26 She PRP lost VBD her PRP$ race NN to TO the DT Texas NNP House NNP of IN Representatives NNPS in IN 1962 CD , , and CC she PRP lost VBD again RB in IN 1964 CD for IN the DT race NN to TO the DT legislature NN . .
22 Her PRP$ persistence NN got VBD her PRP$ a DT seat NN in IN the DT state NN senate NN in IN 1966 CD , , becoming VBG the DT first JJ African-American JJ senator NN since IN the DT Reconstruction NNP . .
20 She PRP had VBD extensive JJ support NN from IN Lyndon NNP B NNP . . Johnson NNP , , the DT President NNP of IN the DT United NNP States NNPS at IN the DT time NN . .
11 She PRP got VBD a DT second JJ term NN in IN the DT senate NN in IN 1968 CD . .
21 Her PRP$ Governor-for-a-day JJ act NN in IN 1972 CD won VBD her PRP$ the DT title NN of IN being VBG the DT first JJ African-American JJ woman NN to TO head VB a DT state NN government NN . .
16 She PRP would MD be VB elected VBN to TO the DT United NNP States NNPS House NNP of IN Representatives NNPS in IN the DT same JJ year NN . .
12 In IN 1973 CD , , she PRP started VBD to TO suffer VB from IN a DT neurological JJ impairment NN . .
9 This DT would MD eventually RB confine VB her PRP$ to TO a DT wheelchair NN . .
23 In IN 1974 CD , , she PRP made VBD a DT well RB known VBN speech NN against IN Richard NNP Nixon NNP , , and CC she PRP got VBD a DT second JJ term NN in IN the DT House NNP . .
19 She PRP made VBD a DT speech NN at IN the DT 1976 CD Democratic JJ National NNP Convention NNP and CC won VBD a DT third JJ term NN in IN the DT House NNP . .
28 She PRP retired VBD from IN politics NNS in IN 1979 CD and CC became VBD a DT professor NN at IN the DT University NNP of IN Texas NNP at IN Austin NNP , , and CC was VBD a DT speaker NN at IN subsequent JJ Democratic JJ national JJ conventions NNS . .
12 She PRP would MD win VB the DT President NNP Medal NNP of IN Freedom NNP before IN her PRP$ death NN . .
9 External NNP links NNS http://www VBP . . rice NN . . edu/armadillo/Texas/chronology NN . . html .
7 http://www JJ . . utexas NNP . . edu/features/archive/2003/jordan NNP . . html .
9 Retrieved VBN from IN '' '' http://en JJ . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Barbara_Jordan NNP '' ''
9 Categories NNS : : 1936 CD births NNS |  1996 CD deaths NNS |  Texans Texans
34 A DT young JJ Pablo NNP Picasso NNP Pablo NNP Picasso NNP , , formally RB Pablo NNP Ruiz NNP Picasso NNP , , -LRB- -LRB- October NNP 25 CD , , 1881 CD - - April NNP 8 CD , , 1973 CD -RRB- -RRB- was VBD one CD of IN the DT recognized JJ masters NNS of IN 20th JJ century NN art NN . .
57 1 CD Overview NNP 2 CD Early JJ life NN 3 CD Picasso NNP and CC pacifism NN 4 CD Personal JJ life NN 5 CD Later RB works VBZ 6 CD List NNP of IN works NNS 7 CD External JJ links NNS Overview IN His PRP$ name NN in IN full JJ was VBD Pablo NNP -LRB- -LRB- or CC Pablito NN -RRB- -RRB- Diego NNP Jose NNP Santiago NNP Francisco NNP de IN Paula NNP Juan NNP Nepomuceno NNP Crispin NNP Crispiniano NNP de IN los NNS Remedios NNP Cipriano NNP de NNP la NNP Santisima NNP Trinidad NNP Ruiz NNP Blasco NNP y NN Picasso NNP Lopez NNP . .
16 His PRP$ father NN was VBD Jose NNP Ruiz NNP y NN Blasco NNP ; ; his PRP$ mother NN , , Maria NNP Picasso NNP y NN Lopez NNP . .
29 In IN his PRP$ early JJ years NNS he PRP signed VBD his PRP$ name NN Ruiz NNP Blasco NNP after IN his PRP$ father NN but CC , , from IN about IN 1901 CD on IN , , switched VBD to TO using VBG his PRP$ mother NN ' ' s POS name NN . .
25 Picasso NNP was VBD born VBN in IN Malaga NNP , , Spain NNP , , and CC is VBZ probably RB most RBS famous JJ as IN the DT founder NN , , along IN with IN Georges NNP Braque NNP , , of IN Cubism NNP . .
37 However RB in IN a DT long JJ life NN he PRP produced VBD a DT wide JJ and CC varied JJ body NN of IN work NN , , the DT best-known JJS being VBG the DT Blue NNP Period NNP works VBZ which WDT feature VBP moving VBG depictions NNS of IN acrobats NNS , , harlequins NNS , , prostitutes NNS , , beggars NNS and CC artists NNS . .
43 While IN Picasso NNP was VBD primarily RB a DT painter NN -LRB- -LRB- in IN fact NN he PRP believed VBD that IN an DT artist NN must MD paint VB in IN order NN to TO be VB considered VBN a DT true JJ artist NN -RRB- -RRB- , , he PRP also RB worked VBD with IN small JJ ceramic JJ and CC bronze NN sculptures NNS , , collage NN and CC even RB produced VBD some DT poetry NN . .
15 '' '' Je NNP suis VBZ aussi JJ un NN poete NN , , '' '' as IN he PRP quipped VBD to TO his PRP$ friends NNS . .
14 Several JJ paintings NNS by IN Picasso NNP rank NN among IN the DT most RBS expensive JJ paintings NNS in IN the DT world NN . .
41 On IN May NNP 4 CD , , 2004 CD Picasso NNP ' ' s POS painting NN Garcon NNP a DT la NNP Pipe NNP was VBD sold VBN for IN USD NNP $ $ 104 CD million CD at IN Sotheby NNP ' ' s POS , , thus RB establishing VBG a DT new JJ price NN record NN -LRB- -LRB- see VB also RB List NNP of IN most JJS expensive JJ paintings NNS -RRB- -RRB- . .
11 Picasso NNP hated VBD to TO be VB alone RB when WRB he PRP was VBD n't RB working VBG . .
48 In IN Paris NNP , , in IN addition NN to TO having VBG a DT distinguished JJ coterie NN of IN friends NNS in IN the DT Montmartre NNP and CC Montparnasse NNP quarters NNS , , including VBG Andre NNP Breton NNP , , Guillaume NNP Apollinaire NNP , , writer NN Gertrude NNP Stein NNP and CC others NNS , , he PRP usually RB maintained VBD a DT number NN of IN mistresses NNS in IN addition NN to TO his PRP$ wife NN or CC primary JJ partner NN . .
19 Picasso NNP ' ' s POS most RBS famous JJ work NN is VBZ probably RB his PRP$ depiction NN of IN the DT German JJ bombing NN of IN Guernica NNP , , Spain NNP . .
15 This DT large JJ canvas NN embodies NNS for IN many JJ the DT inhumanity NN , , brutality NN and CC hopelessness NN of IN war NN . .
31 The DT painting NN of IN the DT picture NN was VBD captured VBN in IN a DT series NN of IN photographs NNS by IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS most RBS famous JJ lover NN , , Dora NNP Maar NNP , , a DT distinguished JJ artist NN in IN her PRP$ own JJ right NN . .
41 A DT Nazi JJ officer NN is VBZ supposed VBN to TO have VB come VBN to TO his PRP$ door NN brandishing VBG a DT postcard NN and CC demanding NN , , '' '' D NNP id VBD you PRP do VB this DT ? ? '' '' '' '' No UH , , '' '' Picasso NNP is VBZ supposed VBN to TO have VB replied VBN , , '' '' you PRP did VBD . . '' ''
34 The DT Guernica NNP hung VBD in IN New NNP York NNP ' ' s POS Museum NNP of IN Modern NNP Art NNP for IN many JJ years NNS ; ; Picasso NNP stipulated VBD that IN the DT painting NN should MD not RB return VB to TO Spain NNP until IN democracy NN was VBD restored VBN in IN that DT country NN . .
17 In IN 1981 CD the DT Guernica NNP was VBD returned VBN to TO Spain NNP and CC exhibited VBD at IN the DT Cason NNP del FW Buen NNP Retiro NNP . .
30 In IN 1992 CD the DT painting NN became VBD one CD of IN the DT main JJ attractions NNS in IN Madrid NNP ' ' s POS Museo NNP de IN La NNP Reina NNP Sofia NNP -LRB- -LRB- Queen NNP Sofia NNP ' ' s POS Museum NNP -RRB- -RRB- when WRB it PRP opened VBD . .
36 As IN certain JJ works NNS , , for IN example NN the DT Cubist NNP pieces NNS , , tend VBP to TO be VB associated VBN in IN the DT public JJ mind NN with IN Picasso NNP , , it PRP is VBZ important JJ to TO realize VB how WRB talented JJ Picasso NNP was VBD as IN a DT painter NN and CC draughtsman NN . .
28 He PRP was VBD capable JJ of IN working VBG with IN oils NNS , , watercolours NNS , , pastels NNS , , charcoal NN , , penc NN il NN , , ink NN , , or CC indeed RB any DT medium JJ with IN equally RB high JJ facility NN . .
37 With IN his PRP$ most RBS extreme JJ cubist NN works VBZ he PRP came VBD close RB to TO deconstructing VBG a DT complex JJ scene NN into IN just RB a DT few JJ geometric JJ shapes NNS while IN at IN the DT same JJ time NN being VBG capable JJ of IN photo-realistic JJ pen NN and CC ink NN sketches NNS of IN his PRP$ friends NNS . .
45 Picasso NNP had VBD a DT massive JJ talent NN for IN almost RB any DT artistic JJ endeavor NN he PRP turned VBD his PRP$ mind NN to TO , , despite IN limited JJ formal JJ academic JJ training NN -LRB- -LRB- he PRP finished VBD only RB one CD year NN of IN his PRP$ course NN of IN study NN at IN the DT Royal NNP Academy NNP in IN Madrid NNP -RRB- -RRB- , , and CC a DT ferocious JJ work-ethic JJ . .
31 Early JJ life NN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS father NN , , Jose NNP Ruiz NNP y NN Blasco NNP , , was VBD himself PRP a DT painter NN and CC for IN most JJS of IN his PRP$ life NN was VBD a DT professor NN of IN art NN at IN Spanish JJ colleges NNS . .
23 It PRP is VBZ from IN Don NNP Jose NNP that IN Picasso NNP learned VBD the DT basics NNS of IN formal JJ academic JJ art NN training NN figure NN drawing VBG , , and CC painting NN in IN oil NN . .
42 Although IN Picasso NNP attended VBD art NN schools NNS thoughout IN his PRP$ childhood NN , , often RB those DT his PRP$ father NN taught VBD at IN , , he PRP never RB finished VBD his PRP$ college NN level NN course NN of IN study NN at IN the DT Royal NNP Academy NNP of IN San NNP Fernando NNP in IN Madrid NNP , , leaving VBG after IN less RBR than IN a DT year NN . .
53 The DT Picasso NNP Museum NNP in IN Barcelona NNP features VBZ many JJ of IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS early JJ works NNS , , created VBN while IN he PRP was VBD living VBG in IN Spain NNP , , as RB well RB as IN the DT extensive JJ collection NN of IN Jaime NNP Sabartes NNP , , Picasso NNP ' ' s POS close JJ friend NN from IN his PRP$ Barcelona NNP days NNS , , and CC for IN many JJ years NNS , , Picasso NNP ' ' s POS personal JJ secretary NN . .
39 There EX are VBP many JJ precise JJ and CC detailed JJ figure NN studies NNS done VBN in IN his PRP$ youth NN under IN his PRP$ father NN ' ' s POS tutelage NN that IN clearly RB demonstrate VBP his PRP$ firm NN grounding NN in IN classical JJ techniques NNS , , as RB well RB as IN rarely RB seen VBN works NNS from IN his PRP$ old JJ age NN . .
33 Picasso NNP and CC pacifism NN It PRP is VBZ true JJ that IN Picasso NNP remained VBD neutral JJ during IN the DT Spanish JJ Civil NNP War NNP , , World NNP War NNP I NNP and CC World NNP War NNP II NNP , , refusing VBG to TO fight VB for IN any DT side NN or CC country NN . .
18 Picasso NNP never RB commented VBN on IN this DT but CC encouraged VBD the DT idea NN that IN it PRP was VBD because IN he PRP was VBD a DT pacifist NN . .
22 Some DT of IN his PRP$ contemporaries NNS though IN -LRB- -LRB- including VBG Braque NNP -RRB- -RRB- felt VBD that IN this DT neutrality NN had VBD more JJR to TO do VB with IN cowardice NNS than IN principle NN . .
24 As IN a DT Spanish JJ citizen NN living VBG in IN France NNP , , Picasso NNP was VBD under IN no DT compulsion NN to TO fight VB against IN the DT invading NN Germans NNS in IN either DT world NN war NN . .
28 In IN the DT Spanish JJ Civil NNP War NNP , , service NN for IN Spaniards NNS living VBG abroad RB was VBD optional JJ and CC would MD have VB involved VBN a DT voluntary JJ return NN to TO the DT country NN to TO join VB either DT side NN . .
23 While IN Picasso NNP expressed VBD anger NN and CC condemnation NN of IN Franco NNP and CC the DT Fascists NNS through IN his PRP$ art NN he PRP did VBD not RB take VB up RP arms NNS against IN them PRP . .
24 He PRP also RB remained VBD aloof IN from IN the DT Catalan NNP independence NN movement NN during IN his PRP$ youth NN despite IN expressing VBG general JJ support NN and CC being VBG friendly JJ with IN activists NNS within IN it PRP . .
13 No DT political JJ movement NN seemed VBD to TO compel VB his PRP$ support NN to TO any DT great JJ degree NN . .
23 After IN the DT Second JJ World NNP War NNP , , Picasso NNP joined VBD the DT French JJ Communist NNP party NN , , and CC even RB attended VBD an DT international JJ peace NN conference NN in IN Poland NNP . .
20 But CC party NN criticism NN of IN a DT portrait NN of IN Stalin NNP as IN insufficiently RB realistic JJ cooled VBD Picasso NNP ' ' s POS interest NN in IN Communist JJ politics NNS . .
20 Personal JJ life NN Picasso NNP had VBD a DT long JJ string NN of IN lovers NNS , , four CD children NNS by IN three CD women NNS , , and CC two CD wives NNS . .
25 In IN the DT early JJ years NNS of IN the DT 20th JJ century NN , , Picasso NNP , , still RB a DT struggling VBG youth NN , , began VBD a DT long JJ term NN relationship NN with IN Fernande NNP Olivier NNP . .
15 It PRP is VBZ she PRP who WP appears VBZ in IN many JJ of IN the DT Blue NNP and CC Rose NNP period NN paintings NNS . .
19 After IN garnering VBG fame NN and CC some DT fortune NN , , Picasso NNP left VBD Fernande NNP for IN Marcelle NNP Humbert NNP , , whom WP Picasso NNP called VBD Eva NNP . .
15 When WRB it PRP became VBD clear JJ that IN Eva NNP was VBD dying VBG , , Picasso NNP left VBD her PRP$ as RB well RB . .
13 Picasso NNP frequented JJ brothels NNS throughout IN his PRP$ life NN , , and CC also RB had VBD numerous JJ affairs NNS . .
16 In IN 1918 CD Picasso NNP married VBN Olga NNP Koklova NNP , , a DT ballerina NN with IN Sergei NNP Diaghilev NNP ' ' s POS troupe NN . .
27 Olga NNP introduced VBD Picasso NNP to TO high JJ society NN , , formal JJ dinner NN parties NNS , , and CC all DT the DT social JJ niceties NNS attendant NN on IN the DT life NN of IN the DT rich JJ in IN 1920s CD Paris NNP . .
28 The DT two CD had VBD a DT son NN , , Paulo NNP , , who WP would MD grow VB up RP to TO be VB a DT sometime RB motorcycle NN racer NN , , sometime RB chauffeur VB to TO his PRP$ father NN , , and CC dissolute NN . .
28 Ol NNP ga NN ' ' s POS insistence NN on IN social JJ propriety NN clashed VBN with IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS bohemian NN tendencies NNS , , and CC the DT two CD lived VBD in IN a DT state NN of IN near JJ constant JJ conflict NN . .
22 In IN 1927 CD Picasso NNP met VBD the DT then RB underage IN -LRB- -LRB- 17 CD -RRB- -RRB- Marie NNP Therese DT Walter NNP , , and CC began VBD a DT secret JJ affair NN with IN her PRP . .
38 Picasso NNP ' ' s POS marriage NN to TO Olga NNP soon RB ended VBD in IN separation NN , , as IN French JJ law NN required VBD an DT even RB division NN of IN property NN in IN the DT case NN of IN divorce NN , , and CC Picasso NNP did VBD not RB want VB Olga NNP to TO have VB half DT his PRP$ wealth NN . .
14 The DT two CD remained VBD legally RB married VBN until IN Ol NNP ga NN ' ' s POS death NN in IN 1955 CD . .
22 Picasso NNP carried VBD on IN a DT long JJ standing NN affair NN with IN Marie NNP Ther NNP ese NN , , and CC fathered VBD a DT daughter NN , , Maya NNP , , with IN her PRP . .
25 Marie NNP Therese NNP lived VBD in IN the DT vain JJ hope NN that IN Picasso NNP would MD one CD day NN marry VB her PRP , , and CC eventually RB hanged VBD herself PRP after IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS death NN . .
16 The DT photographer NN and CC painter NN Dora NNP Maar NNP was VBD also RB a DT constant JJ companion NN and CC lover NN of IN Picasso NNP . .
23 The DT two CD were VBD closest JJS in IN the DT late JJ 30s NNS and CC early JJ 40s NNS , , and CC it PRP was VBD Dora NNP who WP documented VBD the DT painting NN of IN Guernica NNP . .
18 Like IN all PDT the DT women NNS in IN his PRP$ life NN , , Dora NNP was VBD cruelly JJ abused JJ emotionally RB by IN the DT narcissistic JJ Picasso NNP . .
22 After IN the DT liberation NN of IN Paris NNP in IN 1944 CD , , Picasso NNP began VBD to TO keep VB company NN with IN a DT young JJ art NN student NN , , Francoise NNP Gilot NNP . .
17 The DT two CD eventually RB became VBD lovers NNS , , and CC had VBD two CD children NNS together RB , , Claude NNP , , and CC Paloma NNP . .
22 Uniquely RB among IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS women NNS , , Francoise NNP eventually RB left VBD Picasso NNP in IN 1953 CD because IN of IN his PRP$ abusive JJ treatment NN , , and CC infidelities NNS . .
30 This DT came VBD as IN a DT severe JJ blow NN to TO Picasso NNP , , who WP was VBD used VBN to TO submissive JJ women NNS who WP lived VBD for IN whatever WDT scraps NNS of IN affection NN or CC attention NN he PRP deigned VBD to TO give VB them PRP . .
48 He PRP went VBD through IN a DT difficult JJ period NN after IN Francoise NNP ' ' s POS departure NN , , coming VBG to TO terms NNS with IN his PRP$ advancing VBG age NN , , and CC his PRP$ perception NN that IN he PRP was VBD an DT old JJ man NN , , now RB in IN his PRP$ seventies NNS , , who WP was VBD no RB longer RBR attractive JJ , , but CC rather RB grotesque JJ to TO young JJ women NNS . .
25 A DT number NN of IN ink NN drawings NNS from IN this DT period NN explore VB this DT theme NN of IN the DT hideous JJ old JJ dwarf NN as IN buffoonish JJ counterpoint NN to TO the DT beautiful JJ young JJ girl NN . .
13 Picasso NNP was VBD not RB long JJ in IN finding VBG another DT lover NN , , Jacqueline NNP Ro NNP que NN . .
14 Jacqueline NNP worked VBD at IN the DT Madoura NNP Pottery NNP , , where WRB Picasso NNP made VBD and CC painted JJ ceramics NNS . .
17 The DT two CD remained VBD together RB for IN the DT rest NN of IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS life NN , , marrying VBG in IN 1961 CD . .
15 Their PRP$ marriage NN was VBD also RB the DT means NNS of IN one CD last JJ act NN of IN revenge NN against IN Francoise NNP . .
18 Francoise NNP had VBD been VBN seeking VBG a DT legal JJ means NNS to TO legitimize VB her PRP$ children NNS with IN Picasso NNP , , Claude NNP and CC Paloma NNP . .
29 With IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS encouragement NN , , she PRP had VBD arranged VBN to TO divorce VB her PRP$ then RB husband NN , , Luc JJ Simon NNP , , and CC marry VB Picasso NNP to TO secure VB her PRP$ children NNS ' ' s POS rights NNS . .
22 Picasso NNP then RB secretly RB married VBN Jacqueline NNP after IN Francoise NNP had VBD filed VBN for IN divorce NN in IN order NN to TO exact VB his PRP$ revenge NN for IN her PRP$ leaving VBG him PRP . .
33 Later RB works VBZ Painting NNP by IN Picasso NNP In IN his PRP$ 80s NNS and CC 90s NNS , , Picasso NNP , , no RB longer RB quite RB the DT energetic JJ dynamo NN he PRP had VBD been VBN in IN his PRP$ youth NN , , became VBD more RBR , , and CC more JJR reclusive JJ . .
43 His PRP$ second JJ wife NN , , Jacqueline NNP Ro NNP que NN , , screened VBD all DT but CC the DT most RBS important JJ visitors NNS , , and CC closest JJS friends NNS , , even RB excluding VBG Picasso NNP ' ' s POS two CD children NNS , , Claude NNP and CC Paloma NNP , , both DT by IN his PRP$ former JJ partner NN , , the DT painter NN Francoise NNP Gilot NNP . .
15 This DT reclusive JJ existence NN intensified VBN after IN Picasso NNP underwent NN surgery NN for IN a DT prostate NN condition NN in IN 1965 CD . .
11 This DT surgery NN is VBZ rumored VBN to TO have VB left VBN Picasso NNP largely RB impotent JJ . .
38 To TO a DT man NN for IN whom WP sexual JJ adventure NN was VBD such PDT an DT important JJ part NN of IN life NN , , this DT was VBD a DT serious JJ life NN change NN , , and CC Picasso NNP seems VBZ to TO have VB dealt VBN with IN it PRP by IN redoubling VBG his PRP$ already RB prolific JJ artistic JJ output NN . .
37 Devoting VBG his PRP$ full JJ energies NNS to TO his PRP$ work NN , , Picasso NNP became VBD more RBR daring JJ , , his PRP$ works NNS more RBR colorful JJ and CC expressive JJ , , and CC from IN 1968 CD through IN 1971 CD he PRP produced VBD a DT torrent NN of IN paintings NNS and CC hundreds NNS of IN copperplate NN engravings NNS . .
31 At IN the DT time NN these DT works NNS were VBD dismissed VBN by IN most RBS as IN pornographic JJ fantasies NNS of IN an DT impotent JJ old JJ man NN , , or CC the DT slapdash NN works NNS of IN an DT artist NN who WP was VBD past IN his PRP$ prime NN . .
25 One CD long JJ time NN admirer NN , , Douglas NNP Cooper NNP called VBD them PRP '' '' the DT incoherent JJ scribblings NNS of IN a DT frenetic JJ old JJ man NN in IN the DT antechamber NN of IN death NN '' '' . .
50 Only RB a DT decade NN later RB , , after IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS death NN , , when WRB the DT rest NN of IN the DT art NN world NN had VBD moved VBN on IN from IN abstract JJ expressionism NN , , did VBD the DT critical JJ community NN come VBP to TO see VB that IN Picasso NNP had VBD already RB discovered VBN neo-expressionism NN , , and CC was VBD , , as IN usual JJ , , ahead RB of IN his PRP$ time NN . .
27 Pablo NNP Picasso NNP died VBD on IN April NNP 8 CD , , 1973 CD at IN Mougins NNP , , France NNP , , and CC was VBD interred VBN at IN Castle NNP Vauvenargues NNP ' ' park NN , , in IN Vauvenargues NNP , , Bouches-du-Rhone NNP . .
12 Jacqueline NNP prevented VBD his PRP$ children NNS Claude NNP and CC Paloma NNP from IN attending VBG the DT funeral NN . .
45 At IN the DT time NN of IN his PRP$ death NN , , Picasso NNP , , by IN now RB a DT multi-millionaire JJ , , owned VBD a DT vast JJ quantity NN of IN his PRP$ own JJ work NN , , consisting VBG of IN personal JJ favorites NNS which WDT he PRP had VBD kept VBN off RP the DT art NN market NN , , or CC which WDT he PRP had VBD not RB needed VBN to TO sell VB . .
31 In IN addition NN , , Picasso NNP had VBD a DT considerable JJ collection NN of IN the DT work NN of IN other JJ famous JJ artists NNS , , some DT his PRP$ contemporaries NNS , , like IN Henri NNP Matisse NNP , , with IN whom WP he PRP had VBD exchanged VBN works NNS . .
32 Since IN Picasso NNP left VBD no DT will NN , , his PRP$ death NN duties NNS , , or CC estate NN tax NN to TO the DT French JJ state NN were VBD paid VBN in IN the DT form NN of IN his PRP$ works NNS , , and CC others NNS from IN his PRP$ collection NN . .
19 These DT works NNS form VBP the DT core NN of IN the DT immense NN , , and CC representative JJ collection NN of IN the DT Musee NNP Picasso NNP in IN Paris NNP . .
29 And CC recently RB in IN 2003 CD , , relatives NNS of IN Picasso NNP inaugurated VBD a DT museum NN dedicated VBN to TO him PRP , , in IN his PRP$ hometown NN of IN Malaga NNP , , Spain NNP , , called VBD the DT Museo NNP Picasso NNP Malaga NNP . .
25 In IN 1999 CD , , Picasso NNP ' ' s POS Les NNP Noces NNP de IN Pierrette NNP -LRB- -LRB- The DT Marriage NNP of IN Pierrette NNP -RRB- -RRB- sold VBD for IN more JJR than IN USD NNP $ $ 51 CD million CD . .
62 List NNP of IN works NNS List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1889-1900 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1901-1910 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1911-1920 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1921-1930 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1931-1940 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1941-1950 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1951-1960 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1961-1970 CD List NNP of IN Picasso NNP artworks NNS 1971-1973 CD External NNP links NNS Wikiquote NNP has VBZ a DT collection NN of IN quotations NNS by IN or CC about IN Pablo NNP Picasso NNP . .
14 Pablo NNP Picasso NNP Quotes NNPS and CC Paintings NNPS -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . artquotes NNS . . net/masters/picasso_quotes VBZ . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
19 Pablo NNP Ruiz NNP Blasco NNP y NN Picasso NNP -LRB- -LRB- Picasso NNP -RRB- -RRB- : : 400 CD works NNS -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . insecula.com/contact/A009007 CD . . html NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
12 Musee NNP Picasso NNP , , Paris NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . insecula.com/salle/theme_40060_M0127 CD . . html NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
11 Museo NNP Picasso NNP Malaga NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . museopicassomalaga NN . . org NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
11 Pablo NNP Picasso NNP Paintings NNPS Prints NNPS and CC Biography NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . picasso.com NN -RRB- -RRB-
27 '' '' Power NNP and CC Tenderness NNP in IN Men NNP and CC in IN Picasso NNP ' ' s POS ' ' Minotauromachy NNP ' ' '' '' by IN Chaim NNP Koppelman NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www JJ . . aestheticrealism NN . . org/News-ck JJ . . htm NN -RRB- -RRB-
11 On-Line NNP Picasso NNP Project NNP -LRB- -LRB- http://www VB . . tamu NN . . edu/mocl/picasso NN \/ / -RRB- -RRB-
9 Retrieved VBN from IN '' '' http://en JJ . . wikipedia NNP . . org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso NNP '' ''
15 Categories NNS : : 1881 CD births NNS |  1973 CD deaths NNS |  Modern NNP artists NNS |  Sculptors NNS |  Spanish JJ painters painters